Monday, March 2, 2009

REGARDS CROISES SUR LES OPERATIONS MILITAIRES RDC-RWANDA ET LEURS CONSEQUENCES SUR LA REALPOLITIK CONGOLAISE

Professeur YAV Katshung Joseph


I. LIMINAIRES : MIEUX VAUT LA FIN D’UNE CHOSE QUE SON COMMENCEMENT ?

Ce titre évocateur semble mieux résumer les malaises soulevés par les opérations militaires Rwando-Congolaise visant à neutraliser les rebelles Hutu Rwandais des Forces démocratiques de libération du Rwanda (FDLR) dénommée «  Umoja Wetu »[1] dans le Nord-Kivu, d’une part et Soudano-Ugando-Congolaise dénommée « Coup de tonnerre » qui vise les rebelles ougandais de l’Armée de résistance du Seigneur (LRA) dans la Province orientale, de l’autre.

Aprés mille et une polémiques sur ces opérations, voilà que les soldats rwandais -bon gré mal gré- se sont retirés de la RDC comme l’annonçait le Président Joseph Kabila en fin janvier 2009, lors d’un point de presse tenue à Kinshasa.  Une cérémonie « d’adieu » fut même organisée pour marquer ce retrait, avec « parade militaire conjointe », le mercredi 25 février 2009 à Goma. Bien qu’un flou demeure sur le nombre exact de ceux qui sont partis faute de savoir combien ils étaient entrés. Ça c’est un autre débat ! Mais, l’on pourrait ne fut-ce que se poser les questions de savoir : A quand remonte la cérémonie de « Welcome » ou de bienvenu pour enfin faire des adieux ? Bien plus, connaissant la géopolitique de la région des Grands lacs Africains, pouvons-nous sans contradiction affirmer que ce n’est qu’un au revoir?

Sans essayer de supputer sur ces questions, la présente réflexion entend contribuer au débat en passant au peigne fin quelques réactions et/ou arguments de certains opérateurs politiques afin que l’Etat de droit et démocratique ainsi que la culture du rendre compte triomphent en RDC. Il est certes vrai que beaucoup d’encre et salive ont coulé et continuent de couler. Mais, toutes les opinions se valent-elles ?Si toutes se valent, tout est donc dit, reste à s’en remettre au hasard pour faire son propre tri au milieu de la cacophonie.

Mais si certaines sont supérieures à d’autres, encore faut-il en juger selon les vrais critères de discernement : intelligence, compétence, recul, conformité au réel… Telles sont les clés d’un débat d’idées vigoureux et fructueux. À méditer et à appliquer sans modération… C’est en cela que la présente réflexion vaut son pesant d’or : contribuer à la culture de redevabilité  et du contrôle démocratique du secteur de la sécurité et de la défense en RDC, longtemps considérés comme tabous. L’affaire n’est ni tabou ni relevant du secret-défense car en démocratie, les parlementaires ont un mot à dire sur ces questions et il semble qu’ils ont essayé de le faire comme nous le verrons au point suivant.

II. LA PETITION DES DEPUTES NATIONAUX : UN « TSUNAMI » POLITIQUE EN RDC?

2.1. LE DROIT DE PETITION EN QUESTION

Longtemps perçu comme un aspect de la liberté d’expression, le droit de pétition est resté absent dans l’espace constitutionnel congolais.[2] Il est constitutionnalisé avec l’avènement du vent démocratique des années 90. Il évolue actuellement comme un droit autonome, indépendamment de la liberté d’expression auquel il est originairement lié. Il s’agit d’un droit exclusif des citoyens congolais, qui peut s’exercer soit individuellement, soit collectivement. Bien plus, ce droit est aussi garanti aux parlementaires et sénateurs afin de convoquer les sessions de leurs chambres respectives.

2.2. L’EXERCICE DU DROIT DE PETITION PAR CERTAINS DEPUTES NATIONAUX  OU LA GOUTTE D’EAU QUI FERA DEVERSER LE VASE ?

Comme annoncé supra, le droit de pétition est aussi garanti aux parlementaires et sénateurs pour faire convoquer les sessions extraordinaires à la demande de la moitié des membres qui composent l’Assemblée ou le Sénat. C’est fort de ce droit et ce, en conformité avec le règlement intérieur de l’Assemblée nationale[3], que plus de 260 députés nationaux – de la majorité et de l’opposition - ont signé la pétition, initiée aux lendemains de l’entrée des troupes rwandaises en RDC[4], alors que le Règlement Intérieur en exige la moitié plus une voix, c’est-à-dire 250+1.

En effet, les députés pétitionnaires reprochent au gouvernement d’avoir violé les articles 143 et 213 de la Constitution qui disposent respectivement que: «Conformément aux dispositions de l’article 86 de la Constitution, le Président de la République déclare la guerre sur décision du Conseil des ministres après avis du Conseil supérieur de la défense et autorisation des deux Chambres. Il en informe la Nation par un message. Les droits et devoirs des citoyens, pendant la guerre ou en cas d’invasion ou d’attaque du territoire national par des forces de l’extérieur font l’objet d’une loi ». Et «  Le Président de la République négocie et ratifie les traités et accords internationaux. Le Gouvernement conclut les accords internationaux non soumis à ratification après délibération en Conseil des ministres. Il en informe l’Assemblée nationale et le Sénat ».

Selon les députés pétitionnaires, ces dispositions constitutionnelles n’ont pas été respectées. Il n’y a pas eu Conseil des ministres sur l’entrée des troupes rwandaises. Si le caractère invasion pourrait être écarté, les pétitionnaires soutiennent que ce cas relève de la souveraineté et de l’intégrité territoriale d’un Etat souverain. Le Parlement étant en vacances, les bureaux de l’Assemblée nationale et du Sénat devraient être préalablement saisis. Or, au regard des déclarations contradictoires des présidents de deux chambres, il semble qu’ils n’ont été informés qu’après-coup. D’où pareille pétition pour amener le Gouvernement à fournir des explications sur les accords ayant permis aux armées de l’Ouganda et du Rwanda de pénétrer en RDC et d’y mener des activités belliqueuses.

2.3. QUAND LE SENAT ENTRE DANS LA DANSE ET EMBOITE LE PAS DES DEPUTES PETITIONNAIRES !

Comme si cela ne suffisait pas, il nous revient qu’au Sénat, devant la gravité des faits susceptibles de compromettre la souveraineté du pays et pour fustiger la manière quelque peu cavalière de la passation des accords entre la RDC et l’Ouganda, d’une part et de l’autre, entre la RDC et le Rwanda, trois Sénateurs dont LUNDA-BULULU, MOKONDA BONZA et BALAMAGE N’KOLO ont sur pied des articles 116 de la Constitution et 75 du Règlement intérieur du Sénat, pris l’initiative de rédiger une pétition et de la proposer à leurs collègues en vue de la convocation immédiate d’une session extraordinaire de la Chambre Haute aux fins d’entendre le Premier ministre entre autres sur les accords susvisés. Ainsi, une trentaine des sénateurs ont déjà signé ladite pétition appuyant ainsi la démarche entreprise à l’Assemblée nationale et qui fait depuis quelques semaines mouche, frisant une  certaine crise institutionnelle quelque peu comparable à l’époque de Kasavubu et Lumumba.

Mais, relevons que cela ne laisse pas indifférents certains opérateurs politiques en provinces qui estiment que les pétitionnaires n’ont pas le droit ou ont outrepassé.

III. QUAND LE « KATANGA POLITIQUE » S’INVITE DANS LA SAGA, RATE-T-IL UNE BELLE OCCASION DE SE TAIRE ?

3.1. DE LA PETITION OU MIEUX DE LA CONTRE-PETITION DE L’ASSEMBLEE PROVINCIALE DU KATANGA

Comme nous l’avions déjà relevé dans notre ouvrage intitulé « Le Parlement Provincial Pour Quoi Faire ? », l’Assemblée provinciale du Katanga n’est pas loin de cesser  d’être une caisse de résonance de l’Exécutif –national et/ou provincial.[5] Les propos, agissements, déclarations et positions de la plupart des Députés provinciaux du Katanga, posent problème et laissent craindre qu’ils travaillent pour donner de quoi moudre au moulin à paroles mais, pas pour des actes concrets, des mesures qui changent la vie des citoyens. Si c’est pour que l’Assemblée qui vote la loi et consente l’impôt se contente uniquement d’applaudir le gouvernement (provincial et/ou national) et reléguant ses fonctions au dernier plan, nous sommes en pleine décadence de la part des honorables députés.

En effet, l’impuissance du Parlement provincial du Katanga est presque devenue un fléau dénoncé par la majorité de la population. Les parlementaires –surtout ceux de la majorité- semblent ne servir plus à rien. Sinon à pointer pour les émoluments et à voter comme un seul homme. Une autre cause et pas des moindres, c’est le respect aux allures « monarchiques » des politiciens congolais envers les animateurs de l’exécutif tant au niveau national que provincial, qui fait que personne – surtout dans le camp de la majorité- n’ose réfléchir, penser, opiner, contester, de peur de se faire éjecter du système.

Pendant que les députés nationaux ont lancé une pétition pour convoquer une session extraordinaire du Parlement, 98 députés provinciaux sur les 102 que compte l’Assemblée provinciale du Katanga ont signé une pétition [une sorte de contre-pétition] contre ceux des députés nationaux -plus de 260- qui réclament la convocation d’une session extraordinaire susmentionnée. Il nous revient que c’est une pétition qui exprime clairement la volonté de députés [provinciaux du Katanga] de porter à la connaissance de l’opinion tant nationale qu’internationale que l’Assemblée provinciale du Katanga est totalement rangée derrière le Président Joseph Kabila. Elle est aussi une mise en garde lancée aux « manœuvriers de Kinshasa avec leur pétition ». Tout observateur moyen pourrait -bon gré mal gré- s’interroger : Pareille pétition, pour quoi faire ?

3.2. KATANGA : GARD PAR QUI LE MALHEUR VA ARRIVER ET PETITION SUR PETITION NE VAUT ?

Des boulées rouges furent lancées à l’endroit de ceux qui ont signé la pétition au niveau national en des termes tels que : «  ceux qui s’opposent à la présence des troupes rwandaises sont « des sorciers ! »   «… Si l’Assemblée nationale tient à la balkanisation de ce pays … ; le Katanga prendra toutes ses responsabilités historiques et, l’Assemblée nationale en subira toutes les conséquences…Cette pétition exprime clairement que l’assemblée provinciale du Katanga est totalement rangée derrière Joseph Kabila. », etc.

Des menaces à peine voilées étaient au rendez-vous car, il a été intimé aux députés nationaux du Katanga qui auraient signé la pétition de retirer leurs signatures dans les 48 heures, sinon il leur sera interdit de séjourner au Katanga[N’est-ce pas un acte de rébellion ?] Ce qui poussera un opérateur politique du Katanga bien sûr de l’opposition à qualifier l’Assemblée provinciale de «  honte pour le Katanga…où les sentiments priment sur la raison…c’est le Katanganisme…  »[6]

Il est malaisé de rappeler aux faiseurs d’édits -des lois- que la Constitution prévoit la convocation d’une assemblée extraordinaire de l’Assemblée nationale lorsque la majorité absolue des signatures de députés est obtenue. Ainsi,  aucune autre institution, soit-elle l’assemblée provinciale, ne peut s’immiscer dans cette procédure ni essayer de l’arrêter comme cela semble être  le cas avec les dernières ‘élucubrations’ au Katanga.C’est avec raison que l’initiateur de la pétition réclamant la session extraordinaire de l’Assemblée nationale, le député national JEAN-LOUIS ERNEST KYAVIRO, rapporte  la Radio Okapi,  estime de son côté que l’assemblée provinciale du Katanga n’a aucune prérogative constitutionnelle d’interdire la démarche de la chambre basse à Kinshasa. « Ce n’est pas une assemblée provinciale qui peut demander ou refuser une session extraordinaire de l’Assemblée nationale. Chacun a ses compétences et son champ d’action bien précis ».[7]  C’est donc un coup d’épée dans l’eau ! Avec raison un étudiant en droit pourrait conclure : pétition sur pétition ne vaut !

Comme le ridicule ne tue pas, le peuple congolais – particulièrement celui du Katanga- a suivi en date du 24 février 2009, les réactions des députés nationaux et sénateurs Katangais en vacances parlementaires à Lubumbashi. En effet, alors que certains parmi eux ont même signé les pétitions à l’Assemblée nationale et au Sénat, à l’issue d’une réunion tenue au gouvernorat du Katanga, ces députés nationaux et sénateurs exprimeront de vive voix leur désaccord aux pétitions initiées à Kinshasa en se désolidarisant de leurs pairs. Aprés les propos du député national Mr VANO KIBOKO en sa qualité de président du groupe parlementaire du Katanga et celui de Mr LUHONGE KABINDA, président du groupe des Sénateurs du Katanga, ces élus et/ou cooptés du peuple ont collectivement dénoncé la pétition initiée à l’Assemblée nationale par quelques députés nationaux, pour débattre de la question de la présence des troupes rwandaises sur le sol congolais, qu’ils qualifient de cabale destinée à déstabiliser le pouvoir en place. Ils arguent en définitive que le gouvernement congolais et le chef de l’Etat avaient tout à fait raison de pouvoir initier ces contacts pour créer la paix dans l’Est du pays.

Fort de ce qui précède, il est donc opportun pour notre part d’essayer d’analyser à froid, la démarche des députés pétitionnaires et ses contours tout en confrontant certains argumentaires avancés quant à ce.

IV. LES PETITIONNAIRES ONT-ILS RAISON OU TORT ? QUELLES LECONS TIREES ?

Depuis l’entrée des troupes rwandaises sur le territoire de la RDC, jusqu’à leur départ il y a quelques jours, la polémique comme nous l’avons relevé supra, demeure au rendez-vous. Des avis contraires sont avancés dans un sens comme dans un autre. D’aucuns estiment même que ladite pétition est sans objet au regard de l’évolution de la situation sur terrain du fait du succès récolté par l’opération militaire conjointe Rwando-Congolaise ainsi que la non présence –actuellement- en RDC des troupes Rwandaises. Ainsi, d’ici l’ouverture de la Session ordinaire de mars 2009, plus aucun élément régulier rwandais voire ougandais ou sud-soudanais ne se trouvera sur le sol congolais. Même si par improbable, la session extraordinaire venait à être convoquée avant le 15 mars 2009, l’on s’interroge aujourd’hui sur l’opportunité dont elle pourra avoir au regard des grandes évolutions du dossier qui a fondé l’action des pétitionnaires.


Bien d’arguments sont évoqués de tout bord afin d’appuyer ou renverser le bien fondé de ladite pétition. Sans  essayer de tout embrasser, nous allons essayer de relever ceux du Professeur NYABIRUNGU MWENE SONGA, de surcroît député national élu de Rutshuru afin de prendre position par la suite.

3.1. POSITION DU PROFESSEUR NYABIRUNGU QUANT AU FONDEMENT DE LA PETITION ET DE LA QUALITE DES PETITIONNAIRES

En effet, le professeur NYABIRUNGU dans sa réflexion intitulée « La Coalition Militaire Rwando-Congolaise ou le Temps du Courage » du 11 février 2009, reconnaît dans l’introduction que  l’Accord du 05 décembre 2008 et sa mise en œuvre, le 20 janvier 2009, par l’entrée des troupes rwandaises en RDC dans le cadre d’une coalition militaire contre les FDLR et le CNDP-NKUNDA, ont mis sens dessus dessous la scène politique congolaise, provoquant l’enthousiasme des uns et la colère des autres, se trouvant parmi ceux-ci les députés pétitionnaires qui réclament la tenue d’une session extraordinaire pour débattre de la question. » Il renchérit en arguant « qu’en  interrogeant l’histoire récente, en examinant les raisons des uns et des autres, et en étant à l’écoute des attentes de notre peuple, il y a lieu de comprendre et, en même temps, de relativiser les enthousiasmes et les colères en cours, et de donner raison au Chef de l’Etat Joseph Kabila qui, a son corps défendant et en prenant des risques politiques majeurs, aura tout essayé non  dans un intérêt personnel ou partisan, mais pour sauver le Congo et l’engager dans la seule voie qui vaille, celle du développement du pays et du bonheur de son peuple. »[8]

Face à cette plaidoirie, l’on pourrait ainsi demander si pareille paix est durable et qu’elles en étaient les garanties si les causes profondes et réelles de l’instabilité ou des conflits ne sont pas réglées –adressées- ? Une paix de façade ? Pierre Corneille dans « Le Cid » ne nous enseigne-t-il pas qu’ à vaincre sans péril, on triomphe sans gloire ?

Poursuivant sa réflexion, le professeur NYABIRUNGU évoque le fait que pour la qualité de relation entre la RDC et le Rwanda, les animateurs des Institutions démocratiquement élues doivent mettre la main à la patte, en tête desquels le Chef de l’Etat, le Président de l’Assemblée Nationale, le Président du Sénat, le Premier Ministre, les Députés et les Sénateurs. C’est cela la responsabilité des gouvernants.  Nous répliquons en disant, qu’ils doivent donc être consultés et/ou informés afin qu’ils jouent pleinement leur rôle.  Ce qui semble ne pas être le cas dans l’affaire a quo.

Il s’attarde sur les prérogatives du Président de la République  en relevant qu’il a un rôle insigne à jouer pour faire de la RDC un pays puissant et prospère, vivant en paix a l’intérieur de ses frontières et concourant a l’extérieur au maintien ou au rétablissement de la paix chez nos voisins, en Afrique et dans le monde. Il a de par la Constitution, la charge de représenter la Nation et est le symbole de l’unité nationale. Cette unité nationale est impossible si une guerre d’occupation, de conquête ou de pillage s’installe à nos frontières. Pour cela il fait usage de l’article 69, 3 de la Constitution qui dispose que le Président de la République « assure , par son arbitrage, le  fonctionnement régulier des pouvoirs publics et des institutions ainsi que la continuité de l’Etat. Il est le garant de l’indépendance nationale, de l’intégrité du territoire, de la souveraineté nationale et du respect des traites et accords internationaux ». Ainsi, il est clair et évident, dit-il, que la Constitution a fait du Président la clé de voûte des institutions nationales et que conscient de son rôle, il sait que sans la paix, il perd à la fois l’effectivité de ses attributions et la maîtrise de son action.

Quant au Sénat et à l’Assemblée nationale, faire de bonnes lois et en contrôler l’exécution, autoriser la ratification des traites utiles et intérioriser la paix et le bonheur de notre peuple comme la finalité de toute action politique et la loi suprême dans l’Etat, sont autant des conditions de la réussite de son mandat. Lorsque des députés pétitionnaires reprochent au Président Kabila ou au Gouvernement d’avoir violé la Constitution, spécialement en ses articles 143 et 213 , cela ne va pas de soi et peut même susciter des interrogations.

L’article 143 est ainsi libellé «Conformément aux dispositions de l’article 86 de la Constitution, le Président de la République déclare la guerre sur décision du Conseil des ministres après avis du Conseil supérieur de la défense et autorisation des deux Chambres. Il en informe la Nation par un message. Les droits et devoirs des citoyens, pendant la guerre ou en cas d’invasion ou d’attaque du territoire national par des forces de l’extérieur font l’objet d’une loi ».

Il souligne qu’ à lecture de l’article 143, il est clair qu’il vise l’hypothèse d’une guerre déclarée, et que rien de tel n’existe entre la RDC et le Rwanda. Donc, c’est en vain qu’une telle disposition.

Bien plus, l’article 213 dispose :

«  Le Président de la République négocie et ratifie les traités et accords internationaux. Le Gouvernement conclut les accords internationaux non soumis à ratification après délibération en Conseil des ministres. Il en informe l’Assemblée nationale et le Sénat ».

Il en déduit que les députés ne peuvent invoquer cet article en relevant que le Conseil des Ministres ne s’est pas réuni, car n’en faisant pas partie, ils ne peuvent pas en revendiquer les prérogatives. En d’autres termes, ils n’ont pas qualité pour se plaindre à la place du Conseil des Ministres. D’ailleurs, le Conseil de Ministres ne se serait-il pas réuni que les Députés n’auraient toujours pas la qualité pour s’en plaindre, étant donné qu’ils sont ni destinataires ni ampliataires (sic) des délibérations du Conseil des Ministres. [C’est nous qui soulignons]

Par contre, renchérit-il,s’il est vrai que la Constitution impose au Gouvernement d’informer l’Assemblée Nationale et le Sénat des accords internationaux conclu et non soumis a ratification, elle n’impose aucun délai.

Il poursuit en pensant que nous devons accéder à l’esprit de la Constitution dont la finalité, loin de résider dans quelques lignes sujettes à interprétation variable, consiste dans la sauvegarde de la vie de la Nation et des intérêts essentiels. Enfin, il est important d’avoir présents à l’esprit deux principes inhérents à la démocratie et à l’Etat de droit : - Nul n’est juge en sa propre cause ; et – On ne peut être à la fois juge et partie.

La Session extraordinaire de l’Assemblée Nationale réclamée peut être utile au débat, mais ne peut trancher un litige entre deux institutions. C’est parce que le constituant était conscient de ces principes et des conflits possibles entre institutions qu’il a crée la Cour constitutionnelle pour régler pareil différend.

Lorsque la Nation est en danger, les responsables que sont les Députés nationaux, ont l’obligation morale et le devoir civique de respecter la Constitution et de prendre en elle ce qu’il y a de meilleur pour trouver des solutions les plus appropriées et les plus compatibles avec les exigences de la paix et de la tranquillité publique, au lieu d’engager un bras de fer avec d’autres institutions, d’agiter l’opinion publique et de conduire le peuple vers l’impasse, la crise institutionnelle ou des voies faites d’incertitude pour l’avenir.[9]

3.2. NOTRE CONTRIBUTION AU DEBAT ET REACTIONS AUX ARGUMENTS DE L’HONORABLE PROFESSEUR NYABIRUNGU MWENE SONGA

D’entrée de jeu, il sied de mettre en exergue le fait que la notion de sécurité a profondément évolué depuis la fin des années 1980. La sécurité ne peut plus être uniquement envisagée sous l’angle national. On constate, en effet, que de nombreuses crises internes résultent plus ou moins directement d’un conflit éprouvant un pays frontalier ou bien sont alimentées par des éléments nationaux ou étrangers séjournant dans des pays tiers. Les Etats sont contraints désormais d’assurer la sécurité publique par des politiques interdépendantes, ce qui implique des échanges d’informations systématisés et des procédures à mettre en œuvre en commun.

L’obligation d’assurer la sécurité des populations est le défi majeur posé aux Etats. Leur stabilité dépend de leur capacité à assurer la sécurité des biens et des personnes. Cette sécurité est non seulement physique mais également juridique, judiciaire et économique. La sécurité, enjeu de pouvoir et de survie, peut être considérée, à ce titre, comme un bien public mondial. C’est pour cela que nous affirmons que la restauration ou le maintien de la paix et de la sécurité en RDC, passe par le respect des principes démocratiques que sont l’équilibre des pouvoirs, des mécanismes efficaces et transparents de contrôle des forces de l’ordre et le maintien du lien armée-nation.


A. Dans un Etat de droit et démocratique, le domaine sécuritaire est celui de collaboration : Argument tiré de l’exposé des motifs de la Constitution.

Comme nous l’avons relevé supra, le Professeur NYABIRUNGU dans son argumentaire fait usage de l’article 69, 3 de la Constitution qui dispose que le Président de la République « assure , par son arbitrage, le  fonctionnement régulier des pouvoirs publics et des institutions ainsi que la continuité de l’Etat. Il est le garant de l’indépendance nationale, de l’intégrité du territoire, de la souveraineté nationale et du respect des traites et accords internationaux ».

Pour lui, il est ainsi clair et évident, que la Constitution a fait du Président la clé de voûte des institutions nationales et que conscient de son rôle, il sait que sans la paix, il perd à la fois l’effectivité de ses attributions et la maîtrise de son action. Mais ce que le Professeur semble oublier, c’est le fait que la RDC se veut un Etat de droit et démocratique. Ce qui sous tend le fait que la collaboration entre institutions doit être de mise. Du reste, cela transpire de la Constitution de la RDC à laquelle il fait allusion. Tenez ! Bien que l’article 69,3 auquel le Professeur NYABIRUNGU fait recours reconnaît  que le Président de la République est le garant de l’indépendance nationale, de l’intégrité du territoire, de la souveraineté nationale et du respect des traites et accords internationaux.  L’exposé des motifs de la Constitution de la RDC est clair quant à ce en reprenant le même esprit de cette disposition tout en l’explicitant en ces termes : « Le Président de la République exerce ses prérogatives de garant de la Constitution, de l’indépendance nationale, de l’intégrité territoriale, de la souveraineté nationale, du respect des accords et traités internationaux ainsi que celles de régulateur et d’arbitre du fonctionnement normal des Institutions de la République avec l’implication du Gouvernement sous le contrôle du Parlement. »

Ainsi, point n’est besoin de démontrer que toute constitution comporte plusieurs parties dont l’exposé des motifs, qui est une partie  d’un texte de loi qui explique ses raisons et ses objectifs. Il précède le préambule, le dispositif ou le corps du texte. Il  est connu de tout juriste moyen que l’exposé des motifs est “indissociable” du texte constitutionnel.

Bien plus, le même exposé des motifs renchérit et tranche la polémique en affirmant que les affaires étrangères, la défense et la sécurité, autrefois domaines réservés du Chef de l’Etat, sont devenues des domaines de collaboration. [Notion très importante pour notre cas]. 

Il en résulte donc que c’est à tort que l’on cherche à ne pas reconnaître de la qualité des députés pétitionnaires à se plaindre car, pour une matière si importante touchant à la sécurité, à l’indépendance et à la souveraineté du pays, qu’ils ne soient pas informés afin d’exercer leur prérogative, du reste reconnue par la Constitution comme indiquée. Le Parlement demeure plus que tout autre le lieu de l’expression de la démocratie, de la négociation de la norme, et du contrôle du Gouvernement.

B. Le contrôle parlementaire du secteur de la sécurité procède d’un vrai exercice de la démocratie et du respect des droits humains.

La sécurité est primordiale pour le bien-être du peuple. Aussi faut-il impérativement que les opinions du peuple se reflètent dans la politique de sécurité nationale, où sont énoncées les valeurs fondamentales et les principes relatifs à la sécurité nationale que l’Etat entend promouvoir et protéger. Il est nécessaire qu’au sein des parlements, les représentants de la volonté populaire travaillent en collaboration étroite avec le gouvernement et le secteur de la sécurité. Mais si tous ont un objectif commun, leurs rôles et leurs devoirs sont fondamentalement différents. D’où une nécessité de confiance et de dialogue entre institutions, d’autant plus que la sécurité n’est plus un domaine privilégié, il est devenu de collaboration.

Les parlementaires sont donc en principe en mesure d’exercer leur contrôle sur l’armée ou sur les questions sécuritaires. L’affaire n’est ni tabou ni relevant du secret-défense. En démocratie, le Parlement est chargé de définir le cadre légal, d’adopter le budget et de contrôler les activités du secteur de la sécurité. Il ne peut exercer pleinement ces responsabilités que s’il a un large accès à l’information et à l’expertise technique nécessaire et qu’il a le pouvoir et la volonté d’exiger du Gouvernement qu’il lui rende compte de son action. Cela suppose une organisation sociale qui repose sur la confiance et le dialogue. De nos jours, le rôle joué par ceux à qui il incombe d’assurer la sécurité est en pleine mutation. Il est donc salutaire que nos parlementaires aient déjà commencé à jouer leur rôle.

Bien plus, le Parlement donne à voir la Nation souveraine, assure sa « mise en chair »  concrète si l’on peut dire, il justifie son existence essentiellement par les deux attributions fondamentales qui fondent sa compétence : adopter la loi des hommes, et contrôler l’Administration chargée de l’appliquer. Cette double justification répond à la théorie de la séparation des pouvoirs de MONTESQUIEU. En ce qui concerne son rôle d’organe délibérant, relisant MONTESQUIEU à la lumière des analyses de C. EISENMANN[10], il apparaît bien que la théorie de la séparation des pouvoirs ne prône pas une séparation stricte des fonctions mais conduit au contraire les différents organes étatiques à collaborer pour accomplir les trois missions du pouvoir : adopter les lois, les exécuter et juger de leur bonne application. Ainsi, c’est donc dans le souci de collaboration que les députés nationaux ont signé la pétition exigeant la convocation d’une session extraordinaire de l’Assemblée nationale.  Ainsi, les députés pétitionnaires cherchent à « voir clair » dans les opérations conjointes de traque des FDLR au Nord Kivu et se plaignent de la non information de la population et, particulièrement, de la représentation nationale, sur ces opérations.

Mettant en apostrophe le droit à l’information, disons qu’il appartient aux droits de l’homme qui protègent la condition humaine et son développement. Cependant, les droits de l’homme qui protègent nos vies doivent être protégés par la démocratie d’un pays. S’il n’y a pas de démocratie pour tous les membres de la société [ne] peuvent [pas] participer aux processus d’une décision, et c’est la raison pour laquelle ils auront besoin de droit à l’information. Le problème du droit à l’information ne peut pas être pleinement résolu s’il n’y a pas une véritable démocratie dans le pays.

De tout ce qui précède, il appert opportun de soutenir donc que le respect des principes de démocratie et l’Etat de droit, est le fondement de la pétition des députés nationaux [et sénateurs]. Le but premier n’étant pas de faire tomber le Gouvernement, mais que ce dernier rende compte. Cela ne doit gêner personne quand bien même, les effets sont semblables à ceux du Tsunami, de triste mémoire. À la seule différence que cette fois-ci, ils sont politiques.

V. QUE CONCLURE ALORS QUE LE DEBAT DEMEURE TOUT ENTIER ?

 

Les questions du fondement et de l’opportunité de la pétition initiée par les députés nationaux [suivis par les Sénateurs], n’en déplaise aux opérateurs politiques « bénis oui - oui », trouvent leur siège dans la Constitution de la RDC qui sans froid aux yeux, affirme et tranche dans son exposé des motifs que « Le Président de la République exerce ses prérogatives de garant de la Constitution, de l’indépendance nationale, de l’intégrité territoriale, de la souveraineté nationale, du respect des accords et traités internationaux ainsi que celles de régulateur et d’arbitre du fonctionnement normal des Institutions de la République avec l’implication du Gouvernement sous le contrôle du Parlement. » Bien plus, que « Les affaires étrangères, la défense et la sécurité, autrefois domaines réservés du Chef de l’Etat, sont devenues des domaines de collaboration.

Par cette pétition, les députés nationaux n’ont fait que demander ladite collaboration afin d’accomplir leur devoir de contrôle démocratique. Nous les encourageons donc dans cette démarche car, le Parlement doit être de plus en plus une institution à même de répondre à des attentes démocratiques profondes.Sans être le lieu unique des décisions importantes, le Parlement en est bien souvent la condition nécessaire. Il ne doit plus être  « la chambre d’enregistrement » ou mieux « la caisse de résonance »  que l’on dénonce, mais un acteur incontournable dans un système global de production de la norme : lieu de négociation de la décision finale, tribune d’affrontement des idées, meilleur moyen d’assurer un débat transparent et équilibré. Par ailleurs, le Parlement devra être de plus en plus, notamment dans sa fonction de contrôle, comme un acteur à même de répondre à l’exigence croissante de compte-rendu, constituant ainsi des garanties démocratiques : le Gouvernement devra agir désormais sous le contrôle effectif des parlementaires.

En définitive, nous exhortons toutes les Institutions politiques du pays  à respecter les  principes clés de démocratie et de l’Etat de droit. Les animateurs de ces institutions doivent être à l’écoute des citoyens et être des hommes et des femmes de dialogue, d’action et de réflexion, au service de tous. Au fait, être à l’écoute de son peuple n’a jamais été un signe de faiblesse pour un opérateur politique, au contraire c’est une preuve qu’il sert son engagement et qu’il ne s’écarte pas de son idéal. Il sied donc qu’ils le démontrent dans le cas sous examen.

Prof. Dr. Yav Katshung Joseph

 

Tél. + 243 817 613 662  Fax : +1 501 638 4935

 

Email: info@joseyav.com   Web: www.joseyav.com

 

© Controle Citoyen


[1] En langue Swahili et signifiant: Notre unité

[2] NGONDANKOY NKOY-ea-LOONGYA, Droit congolais des droits de l’homme, Collection «Bibliothèque de droit africain », academia Bruylant, Bruxelles, 2004, p. 248.

[3] Le Règlement  intérieur constitue la loi interne du Parlement. Paraphrasant PAUL BASTID (1954), nous disons que  « le Règlement Intérieur de l’Assemblée, c’est la loi intérieure de chaque chambre, fixée par elle-même. L’Assemblée agit en établissant son règlement non comme une branche du pouvoir législatif mais à titre de corporation autonome dotée d’un pouvoir d’organisation et possédant sur ses membres une autorité disciplinaire ». De ce fait, parlant de sa nature juridique, l’on peut dire que le Règlement Intérieur appartient à la catégorie juridique des mesures d’ordre intérieur, c’est-à-dire que la validité des règles qu’il édicte est limitée à leur objet interne. Ces règles sont élaborées par les instances de l’Assemblée qui en assurent également l’application. Elles concernent tous ceux qui sont placés sous l’autorité de ces instances, qu’il s’agisse des députés, des personnels ou de ceux qui se trouvent dans les locaux de l’Assemblée (visiteurs, membres du Gouvernement, fonctionnaires de l’exécutif, membres des cabinets ministériels…)

[4] Entrée qui a été décidée par le gouvernement congolais, lequel a invité officiellement l’armée rwandaise au Congo pour traquer les FDLR. Invitation qui s’inscrit dans le cadre de l’accord signé le 5 janvier 2009 à Goma entre les officiels congolais et rwandais. C’est ainsi que depuis le 20 janvier, l’opération militaire conjointe congolo-rwandaise contre les FDLR a été déclenchée.

[5] Dr. YAV KATSHUNG JOSEPH, Le Parlement Provincial Pour Quoi Faire ? Ed. Contrôle Citoyen, Lubumbashi, DRC, Septembre 2008

[7] Radio Okapi, 13 Février 2009, www.adiookapi.net

[8] Professeur NYABIRUNGU « La Coalition Militaire Rwando-Congolaise ou le Temps du Courage », 11 février 2009, p.1.

[9]Idem, p.5

[10]Voir son célèbre article « L’Esprit des lois »  et la séparation des pouvoirs, in Mélanges CARRE de MALBERG, Sirey Paris 1933, p.190 (reed. Vaduz 1977)

Posted by joseyav at 12:10:40 | Permalink | Comments (3)

Friday, November 21, 2008

La Motivation des Militaires, une Condition Essentielle pour la Restauration et la Sauvegarde de la Paix en RDC ?

 

Par Dr. Yav Katshung Joseph*

    

I. Position du problème

Après des longues années d’instabilités et d’insécurités, la population de République Démocratique du Congo (RDC) était en droit de croire en une nouvelle ère, après les élections au niveau national et provincial et l’installation des institutions et autorités issues des urnes. C’était sans compter  avec les velléités de certains  acteurs politico-militaires du pays et/ou d’ailleurs. La RDC est à  nouveau dans la saga de la guerre dans sa partie Est, qualifiée - à tort ou à raison- par certains comme le poumon de l’insécurité congolaise. Voilà plusieurs semaines que le conflit a repris entre la rébellion congolaise du général déchu Laurent Nkundabatware[1], et les forces gouvernementales. L’avance des troupes rebelles en direction de Goma, le chef lieu du Nord-Kivu, a provoqué l’exode de plusieurs dizaines de milliers de civils, entraînant semble-t-il, la déroute de l’armée congolaise présente sur place.[2] Il a même été rapporté des cas de pillages et  exactions.[3]  Quant à la MONUC, elle présente une neutralité à « géométrie variable » qui pousserait tout observateur à se poser si elle (la MONUC) est réellement une « Mission » ou une « Omission » des Nations Unies en RDC ?  Retranchés dans leurs campements depuis des mois, les casques bleus ont laissé la population congolaise se débrouiller, prise au piège entre la violence des bandes armées gouvernementales et celle des bandes rebelles de Nkundabatware. Elle n’est intervenue, les 28 et 29 octobre dernier, que pour empêcher l’entrée des rebelles dans Goma.[4]

Fort de ce qui précède, il était impérieux de réorganiser les choses dans le camp gouvernemental et dans cette quête, le Président Joseph Kabila vient de nommer en date du 17 novembre 2008,  un nouveau chef d’état-major à la tête des armées. Il s’agit du Général Didier Etumba Longomba - qui a servi dans les ex-Forces armées zaïroises (FAZ), et originaire de la province de l’Equateur (nord-ouest) et dirigeait avant cette fonction, la force navale en remplacement du Général Dieudonné Kayembe. Cette nomination tombe  à point nommé car l’armée avait besoin du tonus et/ou d’un autre souffle, après une nouvelle avancée de la rébellion dans la partie Est de la République. Mais est-elle suffisante pour faire face aux problèmes que pose les forces armées congolaises ? Reconnaissons que les forces régulières font faces aux multiples problèmes qui du reste, ne datent pas d’aujourd’hui – l’indiscipline, la démotivation, le manque de formation adéquate, les divisions internes, etc.-.

Le présent article jette un regard critique sur les corrélations possibles entre les conditions sociales des militaires et l’efficacité de l’armée. Il entend mettre l’accent sur le rôle que doit jouer l’armée congolaise appelée à devenir républicaine mais aussi sur  la responsabilité de tout congolais afin que l’armée ne soit pas que de nom mais aussi de taille et de pointe dans sa mission de protéger nos frontières, les personnes et leurs biens.

II. Le rôle universel d’une armée et la situation en RDC

Il est universellement reconnu que les forces armées sont créées pour protéger la société; elles ont pour fonction de servir et de défendre la population dont elles sont issues. Cependant, pour mener à bien leur tâche, elles doivent occuper une position spéciale au sein de nos sociétés, surtout parce qu’elles sont les principaux détenteurs d’armes. Par ailleurs, dans n’importe quel pays, les militaires constituent un groupe très organisé et très discipliné, soudé par des traditions, des coutumes et des habitudes de travail, mais surtout par la nécessité d’agir ensemble et de pouvoir compter les uns sur les autres en temps de crise et de conflit - une dépendance qui peut littéralement être une question de vie ou de mort. Cette dépendance crée des liens et des loyautés solides et demande un niveau de cohésion dont peu d’autres professions peuvent se prévaloir. Ce sont ces qualités - la discipline, le dévouement et la loyauté - qui confèrent à la profession militaire son caractère particulier et qui, à certains égards, la distinguent du reste de la société.

Pouvons-nous sans froid aux yeux affirmer que l’armée[5]  congolaise remplit-elle ces qualités ? La balance pencherait vers le non. En effet, les accusations contre l’armée régulière ne sont pas nouvelles. En 2007, la MONUC estimait que 40% des violations des droits de l’Homme en RDC étaient le fait des Forces armées de la RDC (FARDC). Pour sa part, l’organisation Human Rights Watch (HRW) note que « …Mal entraînés, peu disciplinés, fréquemment non rétribués et manquant de l’essentiel, les soldats du gouvernement commettent de nombreux crimes au cours de pillages… ». Bien plus, Amnesty international renchérit que l’armée régulière commet des exécutions sommaires, arrestations arbitraires, violences sexuelles et pillages… La liste est longue, en particulier dans le Nord-Kivu en guerre. Il sied donc de s’arrêter un seul instant et réfléchir sur le pourquoi de cette situation au sein de nos forces armées ? Quelle thérapeutique administrer pour sortir de cette impasse et rétablir l’intégrité territoriale et la paix durable ? Ces questions sont nécessaires car il est proverbialement reconnu que quiconque veut aller loin, ménage  sa monture ! Bien plus, qui veut la paix, prépare la guerre!      

III. La question d’amélioration des conditions sociales des militaires congolais et son influence sur leur motivation et rendement.

Les échos en provenance du front à l’Est de la RDC corroborent le fait que l’armée congolaise est dans une situation très difficile. Elle n’est pas encore consolidée, avec une mauvaise gestion de fonds…[6] On rapporte aussi que la corruption y est endémique. Sur le front, les fonds destinés au ravitaillement se volatilisent souvent avant d’arriver jusqu’à la troupe, encourageant immanquablement les soldats à la rapine ou aux pillages.

 

Ce cliché macabre est malheureusement la réalité dans plusieurs coins et recoins de la RDC. Il est donc temps de changer des fusils d’épaule et mettre les hommes et femmes de troupe dans des conditions ne fut-ce que minimales afin qu’ils assument leur mission. Oui, ventre affamé n’a point d’oreille, n’est-ce pas ?

 

La solde est un élément majeur de la condition du militaire. D’une certaine manière, elle reflète le prix qu’une nation accorde, en fonction de ses moyens, à ceux qui veulent la servir si besoin jusqu’au sacrifice du sang. Cependant, la situation des forces armées de la RDC n’est pas vraiment enviable et doit nous interpeller tous. En effet, déjà du temps du feu Président MOBUTU, le ton avait été lancé par le feu Général  MAHELE , le 29 mai 1992 du haut de la tribune de la Conférence Nationale Souveraine, en s’exclamant en ces termes : “Vous venez de vous rendre compte de l’ensemble des conditions difficiles dans lesquelles évoluent le soldat congolais et sa famille. Ce constat est sombre à la suite de l’indifférence des Pouvoirs publics vis-à-vis de l’Armée. À ce sujet, des milliers d’hommes et de femmes, et surtout d’enfants, vous regardent fixement et vous interpellent pour savoir pourquoi et au nom de quoi le soldat congolais, depuis la Force publique, est privé d’avenir ? Serait-il irrémédiablement condamné à vivre ainsi, à s’éteindre ainsi en éternel quémandeur ?”[7]

 

 

À l’époque du feu Président KABILA, nous avions assisté à un engouement effréné des jeunes pour l’armée car le solde était de 100 USD qui constituait une certaine fortune vers  les années 1997 et 1998. Des étudiants finalistes n’avaient pas hésité d’arrêter avec les syllabus et avaient rejoint l’armée pour combattre l’ennemi. Peu à peu cette « fortune » s’est effritée au fur du temps jusqu’à ce qu’à ce jour, rares sont ceux qui touchent ne fut-ce que son équivalent - qui a dans l’entre-temps perdue sa valeur-.

 

Aujourd’hui, les militaires congolais ne disposent pas d’une véritable solde. Ils ne reçoivent qu’une «ration» dont le montant est fixé par un taux barémique provisoire. Ce taux bien que réévalué en janvier 2006, reste relativement faible. Un soldat touche l’équivalent de 25 USD par mois, un adjudant-chef 34 USD, quant au colonel, il reçoit l’équivalent de 50 USD. Les soldats des brigades « intégrées » touchent généralement leur solde mensuelle - 65 dollars - grâce au contrôle exercé par l’EUSEC.

Notons qu’outre la modicité de paiement mensuel des militaires, se pose le problème de sa régularité. Enfin, s’agissant de l’alimentation, les unités reçoivent mensuellement un fonds de ménage calculé sur la base de l’équivalent de 8 USD par homme et par mois, ce qui permet tout juste de fournir un repas quotidien pendant 10 à 15 jours.

 

Tout compte fait, l’on peut comprendre pourquoi le nombre d’exactions commises par les hommes en armes sur la population civile croit. Bien qu’il faille condamner ces actes et agissements, il est cependant nécessaire et urgent de mettre les hommes et femmes en armes à l’abri de sollicitudes. Cela est d’autant vrai car, tout soldat sait qu’il peut mourir au combat. Chose curieuse, son contrat avec la nation stipule qu’il défend le pays et que réciproquement le pays lui donne les moyens de se défendre. Ce qui semble ne pas être le cas en RDC et d’aucuns de se demander pourquoi mourir pour un pays qui ne semble pas se soucier de vous? Telle semble être la question à laquelle répondent les soldats congolais qui refusent de combattre ou qui désertent. Ils sont en un mot « démotivés ». Que faire?

 

IV. Notre responsabilité à tous

 

Face à cette démotivation des hommes et des femmes qui constituent les forces armées de la RDC, il est de notre responsabilité à tous de mettre la main à la patte afin de redorer le blason des vaillants militaires ainsi que  de notre pays qui sont tristement à la une dans certains medias et milieux politico-diplomatiques.   Il est curieux voire écœurant de constater  qu’alors que les parlementaires et les ministres – au niveau national et provincial- pour ne citer qu’eux, se régalent et palpent des milliers des billets verts (dollars) ou des millions des francs congolais, les hommes et femmes en uniforme croupissent dans le noir avec une solde de misère comme indiquée supra. Cela fait que tout individu placé dans des conditions similaires, ne peut qu’être démotivé et se résigner de mourir pour la patrie qui l’a presque oubliée en ne le mettant pas à l’abri des sollicitudes. Pouvons-nous comprendre un seul instant que les députés nationaux et provinciaux  roulent carrosse et bénéficient des avantages que d’aucuns qualifient d’immérités sous prétexte qu’ils doivent être à l’abri des sollicitations[8], mais que l’on ne garantisse pas des conditions minimales à ceux qui sont censés protéger les parlementaires, les gouvernants, la population et leurs biens.

 

Loin de nous l’idée de jeter des pierres aux députés- surtout ceux provinciaux- qualifiés par certains de « silence radio »[9], relevons tout simplement que les parlementaires peuvent faire que l’armée soit dotée des moyens suffisants et contrôler que les militaires soient régulièrement et adéquatement payés et/ou que leur argent ne soit pas détourné comme c’est presque devenu la norme en RDC. Les parlementaires sont donc en principe en mesure d’exercer leur contrôle sur l’armée. L’affaire n’est ni tabou ni relevant du secret-défense. En démocratie, le Parlement veille au fonctionnement de l’armée à travers « la définition des lois et règlements relatifs aux militaires », en votant son budget ou encore à travers la conformité de l’armée « avec la politique de sécurité nationale ». En commission parlementaire, les parlementaires doivent en principe recevoir tous les rapports détaillés sur les réformes envisagées ou entreprises dans les rangs de l’armée et peuvent organiser des auditions pour en savoir plus. Il est donc temps que nos parlementaires jouent leur rôle.

Bien plus, nous suggérons que durant cette période de guerre, que les « gagne beaucoup » contribuent à l’amélioration de la solde des militaires en acceptant de se débarrasser temporairement d’au moins 100 USD par mois et il en restera des milliers des dollars pour leur villégiature, extravagance, etc. Les « gagne petit » ne resteront pas non plus  bras croisés car ils devront aussi contribuer. C’est ici le lieu de faire recours utile à la fameuse philosophie ou doctrine de « un (1) zaïre pour un grand Zaïre » de l’époque du MPR, Parti-Etat. Si chaque citoyen peut contribuer avec au moins un Franc Congolais (FC)-pourquoi pas 1000 FC- nous ferons un grand Congo. Ainsi, nous aurons par cette contribution à l’effort de guerre pour réarmer moralement, socialement et économiquement nos militaires. Mais, tout cela doit être fait  dans la transparence pour éviter les cas d’abus et détournements pouvant entraîner des enrichissements sans cause et pousser certains, à la démotivation décriée.

 

Au gouvernement, nous réitérons les vœux du Professeur MWAYILA TSHIYEMBE  qui souligne que “…le gouvernement de la République n’a besoin ni de tribaliser l’armée ni de la financer sur la possibilité de la créer. Parce que, sans armée, il n’y a pas d’Etat. L’armée est le bras de l’Etat pour agir en cas de coup dur, c’est-à-dire assurer la sécurité des personnes et de leurs biens, assurer les libertés individuelles et assurer la survie des institutions. Quand elle est républicaine, l’armée, au-delà de protéger les personnes et leurs biens, d’assurer l’intégrité du territoire, a aussi la vocation de garantir les institutions républicaines et de défendre les valeurs de liberté. C’est pour cela qu’elle est républicaine. C’est dire que les autorités du pays ont l’obligation, sinon le devoir, de faire en sorte que le Congo retrouve ce qu’il a perdu de l’étoffe d’un pays référant en Afrique centrale, dans la région des Grands Lacs et dans le golfe de Guinée. Avoir une armée républicaine est la condition sine qua non de cette présence, de cette visibilité du Congo…”[10]

 

Que dire de plus ?Sauf rappeler qu’afin de réussir les cinq chantiers de la République -certains diront même « cinq plus »-, en y ajoutant entre autres la paix et la sécurité humaine,  il sied d’investir dans la femme et l’homme congolais, les acteurs de développement durable.  S’ils ne sont pas embarqués dans le bateau de la reconstruction et du développement, il n’y aura point de salut ! Prenons donc conscience de mettre l’HOMME au centre de tout projet afin qu’il vive en toute dignité et en toute liberté : Voilà le chantier des chantiers. Mieux, le premier grand chantier ….

 

 


[1] Surnommé « Nkunda » alors que la loi congolaise sur le nom précisément l’article 64 de la loi numéro 87-010 du 1er août 1987 portant Code de la famille, en son article 64 interdit de changer de nom en tout ou en partie ou d’en modifier l’orthographe ni l’ordre des éléments tel qu’il a été déclaré a l’état civil. Le changement ou la modification peut toutefois être autorisé par le tribunal de paix pour juste motif et en conformité avec l’article 58 de la présente loi.

[2] René CYRILLE,  « RDC : terreur des bandes armées et pillage des richesses », in Lutte Ouvrière n°2101 du 7 novembre 2008, http://www.lutte-ouvriere-journal.org/?act=artl&num=2101&id=42

[3] MONUC

[4] René CYRILLE, op.cit.

[5] Les Forces armées de la RDC (FARDC) comptent aujourd’hui officiellement 125.000 hommes, dont environ 18 brigades « intégrées » - 45.000 hommes - qui ont suivi ces dernières années le processus de réforme de l’armée, appuyé par la communauté internationale - principalement l’Afrique du sud, l’Angola et la Belgique. L’Union européenne est aussi présente avec une mission de conseil et d’assistance de l’UE en matière de réforme du secteur de la sécurité en République démocratique du Congo (RDC), EUSEC RD Congo.

 

[6] Comme le concède le porte-parole militaire de la MONUC, le lieutenant-colonel Jean-Paul Dietrich.

[7]Muissa-Camus, ‘Quelle Armée pour la IIIe République ?’ in La Conscience, 20 juin 2004, http://www.laconscience.com/article.php?id_article=416

[8] Lire EUGENE PIERRE, Traité de droit politique, électoral et parlementaire, Loysel, 1992. Dans son « Traité de droit politique, électoral et parlementaire », EUGENE PIERRE  écrivait :  « Les électeurs n’auraient pas la liberté absolue de leurs votes s’ils ne pouvaient les accorder, indistinctement, à tous les citoyens qu’ils jugent dignes de leur confiance, si des raisons matérielles devaient peser dans la balance de leur choix. L’indemnité attribuée aux représentants du pays a pour but d’empêcher que nul ne soit écarté de l’enceinte législative par des considérations pécuniaires. Les hommes les plus dévoués aux intérêts publics peuvent hésiter légitimement à quitter leurs affaires s’ils ne sont pas assurés d’une compensation pendant l’exercice de leur mandat».

 

[9] Yav Katshung Joseph, Le Parlement Provincial, Pour Quoi faire?, Éditions Contrôle Citoyen, Lubumbashi, RDC, 2008

[10] Question de l’heure, Journal la Conscience, jeudi 22 mai 2008 http://www.laconscience.com/article.php?id_article=7364


* Maître YAV KATSHUNG JOSEPH est Docteur en Droit de l’Université de Lubumbashi (UNILU), Master en Droits de l’Homme et Démocratisation en Afrique de l’Université de Pretoria en Afrique du Sud, Diplômé en Justice Transitionnelle (Cape Town), Diplômé d’Etudes Supérieures (D.E.S) en Droit de l’UNILU et Licencié en Droit de l’UNILU. 
 À son actif, il a également plusieurs articles scientifiques et avis en français et anglais. 
Il est Professeur Associe à la Faculté de Droit de l’Université de Lubumbashi en RDC et Avocat au Barreau de Lubumbashi. Il est en outre Chercheur et Consultant international auprès de plusieurs institutions et organisations internationales, régionales et nationales. Il coordonne la Chaire UNESCO des Droits de l’Homme /Antenne de l’Université de Lubumbashi et dirige le CERDH (Centre d’Etudes et de Recherche en Droits de l’Homme, Démocratie et Justice Transitionnelle). Email : info@joseyav.com  Fax : +1 501 638 4935 Phone : +243 81 761 3662  Website : www.joseyav.com

Posted by joseyav at 08:02:11 | Permalink | Comments (3)

When Reality contradicts Rhetoric: Civilians Protection in the DRC


 

By Dr. Joseph Yav Katshung[i]

 

 

 

Introduction

 

In September 2005, world leaders at the United Nations endorsed a historic declaration that the international community has a “responsibility… to help protect populations from genocide, ethnic cleansing, war crimes and crimes against humanity” and expressed a willingness to take timely and decisive action when states “manifestly fail” to protect their own populations from these threats.[1]

 

Despite the collective shame and regret expressed over genocides and related atrocities, gross violations of human rights, and mass killings continue in the Great lakes region of Africa and in DRC in particular. Conflict, violence and religious radicalism continue to undermine the maintenance of peace and security and the promotion of human rights in the region. Civilians bear the heaviest brunt of acts of terror, wars, and criminal violence. How best to effectively respond to this threat, is the central question this brief sets out to discuss.

 

Protecting civilians in the DRC: A nightmare?

 

A clear picture of civilian suffering in the DRC has just been painted in the second Cross-Cutting Report of the Security Council Report dealing with Protection of Civilians.[2] It is clear from this report that ‘over the past 14 years, the DRC has experienced continuous instability and a civil war that took an extremely heavy toll on the civilian population. The numbers are vast: from the spill-over from the Rwandan genocide in 1994, to the 1996-1998 and the 1998-2003 civil wars and the ensuing political transitions, millions of civilians died of conflict-related causes and hundreds of thousands of others were displaced. The second civil war alone is estimated to have led to the death of between 3.3 and 5.4 million civilians, which ranks it as the world’s deadliest conflict since World War II. The war involved dozens of rebel groups-both Congolese and foreign, including Rwandan génocidaires”, the LRA and the Angolan UNITA-in addition to other African countries: Rwanda, Uganda, Burundi, Sudan, Angola, Zimbabwe, Chad and Namibia.’[3]

 

Today, the DRC continues to face instability in its eastern provinces and resulting abuse against the civilian population. The primary causes are the recalcitrant foreign and Congolese militias (in particular the Rwandan Forces démocratiques de libération du Rwanda, or FDLR, the LRA and General Laurent Nkunda’s forces), the resulting controversial relations between the DRC and Rwanda/Uganda, and the lack of discipline and integration within the government’s security forces.[4]

The current situation in eastern DRC is a tragic part of Africa’s contemporary history, despite international community’s pledge to never let another chaotic situation happen again in this region. It is a failure of governments, international organisations and the UN Security Council to generate the necessary political will to protect the world’s citizens. In this line, the United Nations Mission in the DR Congo (MONUC), the biggest international peacekeeping mission, has been criticized by an increasingly angry population for failing to prevent the advance of rebels led by Laurent Nkunda. There are also reports that hundreds of protesters had attacked the mission’s headquarters, saying the UN was not doing enough to protect them. Demonstrators are angry that the 17,000-strong UN force has not better protected them against an offensive by rebel forces.

 

Against this background, someone can ask if MONUC is really a “Mission” or an “Omission” in protecting civilians? It is therefore clear that the development of law, norms and political mechanisms to allow collective intervention in crisis situations is of little more than academic value if it is not accompanied by a political will to protect civilians.

 

With political will, rhetoric can be transformed into reality

 

With sufficient political will - on the part of Africa and on the part of the international community –protecting civilians in Africa can be enhanced. Governments must not wait to act until images of death, destruction and mass displacements are shown on TV screens. With political will, rhetoric can be transformed into reality. Without it, not even the noblest sentiments will have a chance of success. Political will is also needed from the international community. Whenever the international community is committed to making a difference, it has proved that significant and rapid transformation can be achieved. Yet significant progress will require sustained international attention at the highest political levels over a period of years.

 

On a continent where gross human rights abuses and violence are rampant, African leaders have not demonstrated the will to exercise the African Union’s right to intervene to stem gross human rights violations in either a concerted or consistent manner. Yet the involvement of the international community – and of African states in particular – in seeking to promote peace and security remains ad hoc and inconsistent. Generating the political will to protect civilians remains therefore a priority in Africa. With sufficient political will - on the part of Africa and on the part of the international community – protection of civilians in Africa can be enhanced. Genocide and other related atrocities are not only a dark legacy of the past but a threat to the present and future of many societies.

 

It is Time to Demonstrate that Civilian Protection is a Shared Responsibility!

 

It should be noted that civilian protection is not just a responsibility of the government, armed forces, and other security apparatus but rather a collective and shared responsibility of the state, civil society groups and the international community. In this regard, the responses to protect civilians should immensely benefit from Vaclev Havel’s sagacious words, “we live in a new world, in which all of us must begin to bear responsibility for everything that occurs.”[5] Besides a strong commitment, effective protection of civilian requires resources. Over time, civilian protection must not only become a norm but also a practice. Its success as a norm will rightly be judged on whether it has reduced the vulnerability of civilian populations to armed conflict, and on the extent to which human rights and humanitarian obligations are observed and enforced. Successful implementation of protection strategies requires the development of a comprehensive and holistic approach to security combined with the necessary political will.

 


[1] Expressed in the United Nation Resolution A/60/L.1 referred to as the 2005 World Summit Document (or, simply, the Outcome Document)

 

[2] Security Council Report, Cross-Cutting Report, Protection of Civilians, 2008, Number 02, 14 October 2008. This report is available online at www.securitycouncilreport.org

[3] Idem

[4] Ibidem

[5] Memorable Quotes and quotations from Vaclev Havel, at http://www.memorable-quotes.com/vaclev+havel,a2181.html (Accessed on 15 August 2007)

 


[i] Dr Joseph Yav Katshung is an Associate Professor in the Faculty of Law at the University of Lubumbashi, an Advocate at the Lubumbashi Bar Association and the coordinator of the UNESCO Chair for Human Rights, Democracy, Good Governance, Conflict Resolution and Peace at the University of Lubumbashi, DRC. He can be contacted by  Email at : info@joseyav.com    By Fax: +1 501 638 4935  Web site: www.joseyav.com

Posted by joseyav at 07:57:19 | Permalink | Comments (4)

Tuesday, April 22, 2008

The Democratic Republic of Congo at the Crossroads of Prosecutions, Truth Seaking and Reparations

http://jyav.blogspot.com/2007/09/democratic-republic-of-congo-at.html

Dr. Joseph Yav Katshung 

Introduction

While people are again fleeing from their homes in North Kivu as tension and terror return to the border province in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), this article discusses the challenges and prospects for prosecutions in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) after heinous crimes were committed during period of conflicts and still continued with the recent attacks which have been blamed on an array of rebel groups such as the Democratic Liberation Forces of Rwanda (FDLR); the Mai-Mai militia; and soldiers allied to Laurent Nkunda, who recently withdrew his men from the national army in violation of peace accords aimed at ending the violence in North Kivu. Fingers have also been pointed at government soldiers.

It is assumed that a significant step in fighting impunity and thus prevent future reoccurrence of gross violations of human rights in Africa is by bringing perpetrators of crimes to account. Although there is the duty to prosecute, there are also various other methods of accountability available. There are many ways to address gross human rights violations during a period of political transition. In the context of the DRC, the challenge is how to pursue these objectives in a situation where one is confronted with the realities of a weak justice system, a large number of perpetrators, a very large number of victims, and the need to consolidate a fragile peace process. There is a clear link between efforts to establish accountability and establish or re-establish the rule of law for the future. The serious shortcomings in the administration of justice and the impunity of human rights violators prevail today.
This article discusses the challenges and prospects for prosecutions, truth seeking and reparations in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) after heinous crimes were committed and are still continued. 

Background to the violent nature of the conflict in the DRC 

The large-scale conflict in the DRC has resulted in one of the world’s worst humanitarian crisis with over 3.4 million displaced persons scattered throughout the country and an estimate of 3.9 million killed people as a result of the war.

During the war and after, all the parties to the fighting- the Mayi Mayi troops, the FARDC soldiers, the rebels troops (RCD, MLC, etc) and, foreign troops - were involved in gross and severe human rights abuses with innocent civilians as victims. These armed groups executed ordinary civilians and raped scores of women and girls. Some of the victims were targeted on the basis of their ethnicity or their perceived political loyalties. Soldiers and irregular forces on all sides committed rapes and killings of civilians, as well as widespread looting, during and after years of intense combat. That is true as the combatants have unlawfully killed unarmed civilians and subjected many others to torture and other forms of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment 

The obligation to prosecute these acts committed by all the parties in DRC either individually or with others is based from obligations under the Genocide Convention ; the obligation to prosecute at least “grave breaches” derives from the Geneva Conventions ; and the obligation to prosecute crimes against humanity arguably derives from customary international law. Thus, neither the international community nor any state nor group of states can validly negate the criminal responsibility of any individual who has committed international crimes.” 

These atrocities, and countless others, have occurred in the DRC since war began. Most of those who died were civilians. This shows the changing trend in violent conflicts that have occurred in recent decades and that appear to produce more civilian victims. In fact, according to Wafula Okumu, “in all of the African conflicts, civilians have paid the heaviest prices - as pawns, hostages and objects of conflict, if not the deliberate targets of violence.” As conflicts continue in Africa, a common denominator is the prominent role played by the leaders, both in government and rebel movements. 
The scale, number, and seriousness of human rights violations (war crimes, crimes against humanity, and other violations of international humanitarian and human rights law), which were committed during the war, together with their systematic nature, clearly amount to serious crimes under international law - crimes that the international community as a whole, has pledged to work together to prevent and punish. This was also confirmed in a judgement by the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The ICJ rendered its Judgment in the case concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda). The DRC accused Uganda of invading its territory and massacring civilians. Several African states were involved in the war, which left more than 4 millions people dead. Uganda says its troops entered Congolese territory to pursue Ugandan rebels. DR Congo brought the case saying its sovereignty had been violated, and demanding compensation for plundered minerals and other resources.

On December 19, 2005, the Court ruled in a binding decision that Uganda must pay compensation to the DRC for invading, looting and being responsible for human rights abuses during the 1998-2003 war. The ICJ ruling follows an application of June 23, 1999 by the DRC instituting proceedings in the international court against Uganda for “acts of armed aggression perpetuated in flagrant violation of the United Nations Charter and of the Charter of the OAU”. 

Needless to explain this large-scale conflict has dramatically endangered the lives of civilians. The most pressing need to be addressed is the question of justice and accountability for these human rights atrocities. Who can be considered to be liable for the act?

Sharing responsibility for heinous crimes: Direct and indirect perpetrators 

The war has spread swiftly - both in terms of the number of governments and armed groups involved in the fighting, and in terms of the devastating impact the conflict has had on the local population. All fighting parties to the conflict have been responsible for violations, either directly or through exercising control over groups that commit them. Among the worst violations are killings of civilians, destruction of villages, rape, and torture.

Just as it is the primary responsibility of States to ensure that the human rights of people within their jurisdiction are protected, so also is it their duty to ensure justice for victims. The responsibility of ensuring that impunity does not prevail in any society rests squarely on the shoulders of its leaders through its law enforcement agents; while the judiciary is to ensure that the law is applied correctly in dealing with identified perpetrators brought before it. However, one can say that there has been a blatant lack of will on the part of the leaders of the government and armed groups involved in the DRC war to prevent human rights abuses and a total disregard for their obligations under international law to prevent attacks on unarmed civilians. These leaders should be held responsible and brought to justice for the abuses their forces have committed, if it can be demonstrated that they have ordered, condoned or deliberately failed to prevent the abuses. Violations of international humanitarian law and human rights law which governs the humane treatment of unarmed civilians in a war situation have continued unchecked. Military and political leaders of the forces involved in these killings should take effective action to prevent further human rights abuses and bring those among their forces responsible for the abuses to justice. If not, impunity will thrive in many societies without caution.

Therefore, the acts allegedly committed by political and military leaders (those who bear the highest responsibility), either individually or with others, include: terrorising of the civilian population; unlawful killings; sexual violence; physical violence; conscription or enlisting children under the age of 15 years into armed forces; abductions and forced labour by enslaving civilian population; and looting of civilian properties.
Political and military leaders, while holding positions of superior responsibility and command over subordinate members of the Mayi Mayi troops, the FARDC soldiers and the RCD and MLC troops, and, or foreign fighters (Rwanda and Uganda), are individually criminally responsible for the crimes referred to above. They are also criminally responsible for the acts of their subordinates in that they failed to take necessary and reasonable measures to prevent their subordinates from perpetrating such crimes. Those leaders and those who participated in the joint criminal enterprise to commit crimes against humanity, war crimes (commonly known as violations of Article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions and of Additional Protocol II to the Geneva Conventions), and other serious violations of humanitarian law and the Congolese law are considered to be bearing the greatest responsibility for all the massacre that took place in DRC.

Which Path for Accountability Measures?

Despite the multitude of atrocities that resulted from the war in the DRC, and which have been widely decried, only little efforts have been undertaken in the DRC to enforce the violations of human rights and humanitarian law. Very few direct or indirect perpetrators were brought to account for their crimes against civilians. 
This situation is reinforcing the reign of impunity. Thus, impunity arises from a failure by the DRC to meet its obligations to investigate violations, to take appropriate measures in respect of the perpetrators, particularly in the area of justice, by ensuring that they are prosecuted, tried, and duly punished, to provide victims with effective remedies and reparation for the injuries suffered, and to take steps to prevent any recurrence of such violations. 

Bassiouni lists the following options: international and national investigatory commissions; truth commissions; national lustration mechanisms; civil remedies; and mechanisms for the reparation of victims. The following points will discuss the prospects for prosecutions, truth commissions, and reparations. 

Prosecutions and Judicial responsibility

Ensuring justice is fundamental to redressing abuses of human rights and crimes under international law committed by all parties involved in the DRC conflict. There can be no genuine reconciliation in the DRC, unless perpetrators are held criminally responsible, the truth about human rights abuses is established and full reparations are provided to victims. However, what types of legal process could be pursued and who will be responsible to lead this process? 

In recent years, the international community has played a leading role in devising systems and strategies to bring justice and reconciliation to victims of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes in conflict areas around the world. National courts, ad hoc international tribunals, various hybrid courts, truth and reconciliation mechanisms and the International Criminal Court (ICC) are among the host of tools being used to provide a reckoning for those who commit these crimes, with varying degrees of success and lasting consequences. 

In the DRC case, all those tools should be used and especially, national and international courts. It may also be fair to establish an ad hoc or special tribunal for the DRC in order to try crimes out of the scope of the ICC. 
National/ military courts 

Because the primary onus of accountability for the violations of human rights committed in the DRC rests with the Congolese government, domestic trials constitute an important potential mechanism for accountability. Indeed, beyond the moral and political obligations upon the Congolese government are legal obligations as well, most notably the requirement under international law to prosecute and punish perpetrators of gross violations of human rights. Moreover, national prosecutions will yield benefit only if the judicial system is generally fair and effective. 

In other words, domestic legal systems remain the primary fora for holding individuals accountable for grave human rights violations. National courts have the principal responsibility for such trials, as part of a state’s duty to uphold the rule of law. Moreover, because such tribunals are closest to the scene, the perpetrators, and the victims of atrocities, they represent the starting point for considering accountability options. According to the law in DRC, both “jurisdictions civiles et militaires” civilians and military courts have jurisdiction over the heinous crimes committed in DRC or any crime against humanity, war crime or genocide. Article 156 of the DRC’s 2006 Constitution states that military courts may only hear cases involving army and police personnel. Military courts try military and related persons based on the military code which is more progressive as it incorporates the crimes against humanity, war crime and genocide. Another fact is that according to the Constitution, in time of war, civil courts seize to function and all the matters must be referred to the military jurisdictions. 

However, national courts cannot exercise jurisdiction over all offences regardless of where they were committed. Rather, the jurisdiction of national courts is governed by the domestic law of the state concerned and by international law principles of jurisdiction. For serious violations of human rights, the universality principle permits a state to exercise jurisdiction over perpetrators of certain offences considered particularly heinous or harmful to mankind, regardless of any nexus the state may have with the offence, the offender, or the victim. 

In the DRC, military courts are playing an important role in the quest for accountability. In fact, on 12 April 2006, the Military Garnison Court in Songo Mboyo in DRC has sentenced seven military officers of the Armed Forces of the DRC (FARDC) to life in prison. In the night of 21 December 2003 the FARDC battalion based in Songo Mboyo, which were actually the troops of the ex-Liberation Movement of Congo (MLC), committed collective rape of at least 119 Women and girls; many of them were less than 18 years old. The battalion rebelled against its commanders who are accused of keeping one part of army salaries. FARDC personnel then robbed almost all the houses in the villages of Songo-Mboyo and Bongandanga. They were accused of crimes against humanity.

A compensation of 10,000 US dollars is to be paid to the family of the victim. The other victims who were raped will each receive 5,000 US dollars. Compensations ranging between 500 to 200 US dollars are stipulated for businessmen and villagers who were victims of robbery. This was the first sentence against military personnel of the FARDC for crimes against humanity because of massive rape. The same verdict also condemned the Congolese state to assure the payment of compensations to the civilians, in case the FARDC personnel sentenced is unable to pay. 

Moreover, almost four months after this first case, another military tribunal in the Democratic Republic of Congo’s Ituri District has sentenced a militia leader to 20 years’ imprisonment for crimes against humanity. Yves Panga Mandro Kahwa, the common-law chief of the Bahema Banywagi community in Djugu, where he also served as a “major” in the UPC, one of the militia groups that had been active in Ituri since 2003, had been charged with creating the Parti pour l’Unité et la sauvegarde de l’Intégrité du Congo (PUSIC) insurrection movement in 2002 in Tchomia. The tribunal ruled on 1st August 2006 that PUSIC was responsible for the destabilisation of the district.
The tribunal ruled that Kahwa’s crimes against humanity date to 15 and 16 October 2002, when 10 people died after he set fire to a health-centre, schools and churches in the Zumbe and Bedu Ezekere localities, 10 km southeast of Bunia. Ituri has remained volatile due to militia activity, despite various Congolese political parties and rebel groups signing an agreement in 2002 that ended the civil war in most parts of the country. Kahwa had also been charged for the abduction, over two weeks in 2002, of Prof Ntuba Luaba, then minister for human rights. Another militia leader, Thomas Lubanga of the Union des patriotes congolais (UPC), has also been charged with complicity in the abduction. Lubanga is in the custody of the International Criminal Court in The Hague, awaiting trial for crimes against humanity, allegedly committed in Ituri. 
The tribunal also directed that Kahwa pay 14 victims of his crimes between US $2,500 and $75,000 in compensation. This sentencing shows a fight for the rule of law and an end to impunity.
These two court’s decisions are a significant step which will help advance the fight against impunity and provide reparation. However, more needs to be done. The DRC should guarantee the individual rights of all its citizens. The Congolese government is responsible for acts of torture or other human rights violations committed, and should come up with ways to provide reparation to the victims. However the question is: how should reparation be done? This is a difficult task especially when emerging from protracted conflict, with ethnic division, not all perpetrators can be brought to book, and such prosecutions both outstrip available resources and risk a dangerous frailty, division, balkanisation, instability, etc. 

Also, one delicate question relates to contributions from foreign governments and individuals. How possible is it for foreign countries and individuals being held accountable to pay reparation? This is the case of Uganda and Rwanda due to their invasion of the DRC. In this regard, in the recent judgement by the International Court of Justice (ICJ), Uganda was found liable to compensate the DRC for violations of public international law, international human rights law, and international humanitarian law, which amount to be paid in reparation will be determined through bilateral negotiations between Uganda and the DRC. It is unlikely that victims will benefit from it. 

International courts 

Failure to provide justice at the national level for gross and systematic human rights violations does not mean that justice shall be denied. Prosecutions at an international tribunal would satisfy the goals of accountability in their fullest sense by prosecuting perpetrators of atrocities committed during the war. Certainly, the prima facie case of guilt for severe violations of international law is manifest enough to justify use of this mechanism. More importantly, the severe difficulties of domestic trials, in particular the clear prospect of their manipulation by domestic political forces, justify an international tribunal as the best forum for achieving fair and effective justice in the DRC case. This is in line of the ICC’s ‘principle of complementarity’. Under this principle, the International Criminal Court (ICC) will “act only when national courts are unable or unwilling to exercise jurisdiction. If a national court is willing and able to exercise jurisdiction, the ICC cannot intervene and no nationals of that State can be brought before it.

- The Call for an International Criminal Tribunal for the DRC 

There is broad agreement in DRC that war crimes and crimes against humanity cannot go unpunished, and civil society and some in the former and new governments have called for the establishment of an international criminal tribunal of some type. Therefore, one solution for bringing the perpetrators of these heinous crimes to book in the DRC may be for the Security Council to establish a new ad hoc tribunal, modelled after the ICTY and ICTR. An international criminal tribunal for the DRC would satisfy the goals of accountability in their fullest sense by prosecuting perpetrators of atrocities committed during war. Certainly, the prima facie case of guilt for severe violations of international law is manifest enough to justify use of this mechanism. More importantly, the severe difficulties of domestic trials, in particular the clear prospect of their manipulation by domestic political forces and to some extent foreign forces, justify an international tribunal as the best forum for achieving fair and effective justice in this case. In this regard, in her report to the fifty-ninth session of the Commission on Human Rights, the Special Rapporteur on the human rights situation in the DRC has recommended the establishment of a special jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute those responsible for war crimes and crimes against humanity perpetrated by all parties in the DRC conflict. This will address the delay in delivery of justice.

However, prosecutions in an international forum face practical challenges. Alvarez argues that, “trials are undermined and not merely rendered more difficult the greater the distance between their venue and the location of witnesses and evidence.” 
Even if such prosecutions are successful, their impact on national accountability may be diminished by their extraordinary international nature. Thus, it seems unlikely that the UN will be willing to establish another international criminal tribunal modelled on the ICTY and ICTR. 

- The Option of a Special Court for the DRC 

Another option might be to establish a more streamlined “mixed” tribunal or “hybrid” tribunal such as the Special Court for Sierra Leone, which operates under a strict time-line and at less cost. This Special Court will apply local as well as international law. It also has the advantage of being geographically close to the events it is trying and may be better placed to contribute to the rebuilding of the country’s own legal system. Essential for the success of any tribunal, however, is that it is truly independent, pursues responsible persons from all sides, and is viewed as impartial and legitimate in the eyes of the population.

Until systemic improvement is achieved, the only option for trials that might overcome the fundamental shortcomings of the judicial system in the DRC or other similar states would involve a special judicial process. This solution would demand significant international effort to achieve credibility inside and outside the DRC.
To implement such a plan, some mechanism would be required to ensure a fair and independent set of judges and prosecutors, free from political control or pressure.
This could entail the creation of a Special Congolese Court with foreign judges and prosecutors alongside, or instead of, local officials, as these jurists would offer the prospect of impartiality in a way that a purely Congolese Court might not and they could come from countries not associated with foreign involvement in the DRC’s conflict.

The benefits of such an approach would place the responsibility for accountability on the polity most concerned. Ordinary citizens could observe and even attend the proceedings, which would become part of their history. Equally important, the trials could have long-term benefits for the Congolese legal and political culture.
Citizens would witness how perpetrators of human rights atrocities including public officials can be held accountable in their own Courts for their misdeeds, thereby helping in a small way to break the cycle of impunity that still pervades the country.
The national component of the hybrid mechanisms offers the potential advantage that the trials will leave a more lasting legacy in the countries where the crimes occurred. In theory, the existence of national staff working alongside internationals with expertise in adjudicating complex criminal trials could over time enhance the capacity of national courts. The proximity of the court to the site of the crimes could make the trials more accessible to victims and those in whose name the crimes were committed.
Nonetheless, significant obstacles loom over such a plan. The international community might prove unwilling to make the necessary investment even in a Congolese trial, although the costs of such assistance would be for less than those of ICTY and ICTR. Also, the local component of these mechanisms also presents particular challenges. Security risks may be increased, local staff hired to work on these cases may be linked to past abuses, thereby re-traumatising victims and witnesses, and national staff may be subject to political interference or lack the expertise to ensure that cases are tried fairly and effectively.

Another option to bring perpetrators to account is through reparation measures. Reparation plays a major role in the justice process after a conflict. It brings perpetrators to account on the one hand, and it provides redress for victims on the other. Over the last decade there have been intense debates internationally and locally about reparation for victims of gross and systematic human rights violations. 

Reparations and Truth Seeking 

In the DRC, civilians have been severely affected by the conflicts and violence. If we are to get over the past and build national unity and reconciliation, we must make sure that people who suffered gross human rights abuses are acknowledged by providing them with reparation. These measures cannot bring back the dead, nor can they adequately compensate for pain and suffering suffered, but they can improve the quality of life for victims of gross human rights violations and/or their dependants. However, one important question is posed: how does a nation like the DRC seek to repair harm, restore rights, and build trust when victims number in the millions over a period of many years? The recently adopted Bassiouni Principles (2006: A/RES/60/147) can be helpful to build a framework for a reparation plan for the DRC. According to these principles a reparation must take five forms: restitution, compensation, rehabilitation, satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition. Restitution includes all the measures aimed at re-establishing the original situation before the human rights violation occurred. Examples include return to one’s place of residence or the return of property. Compensation is the payment of a sum of money for any economically assessable damage resulting from the human rights violation. Rehabilitation aims to restore the individual’s health and reputation after the human rights violation. It includes medical and psychological care as well as legal and social services. Satisfaction may assume the form of a public apology, commemoration, tributes to the victims and so on. And the guarantees of non-repetition are measures that contribute to the prevention of further violations, such as legislative reforms and human rights training for armed and security forces. 

However, one could ask if the DRC government is serious about seeking to repair harm, restore rights, and build trust when in October 2006, two militia commanders have been appointed colonels in the army in a bid by the government to pacify the troubled northeastern district of Ituri. 
The world is still reflecting on the paradox of peace and justice in the Northen Uganda case and yet, in the DRC, two militia leaders have been “rewarded for war” and appointed army colonels. In fact, in the name of peace, Peter Karim of Front des Nationalistes et Intégrationnistes (FNI) and Mathieu Ngudjolo of Mouvement des Révolutionnaires Congolais (MRC), both accused of killing, rape, and using child soldiers, have been appointed as colonels in the national army. This appointment authorized in a ministerial decree signed on 2 October 2006 has been publicly announced on 10 October 2006. What is shocking is the fact that the Peter Karim and Mathieu Ngudjolo cases are not the only ones in this regard. Several similar cases are to be counted. Indeed, in 2005 four ex-militia leaders were appointed generals in the national army.
It seems that impunity can be tolerated or preferred in the name of the peace process. In so doing, this appointment threatens to undermine future justice in term of accountability for those responsible for grave human rights violations. Are all these appointments helpful for peace and reconciliation in the DRC especially when the previous appointments did not bring peace in this area?
One should recommend that if the DRC wants a lasting peace, the country should not appoint individuals into the army when there is irrefutable evidence that those individuals have committed grave atrocities. But in the case of the last appointment, Adolphe Onusumba, the then Defence Minister, argued that the objective of these nominations is the pursuit of peace. The term of peace has a broad meaning, but in the context of a post-conflict situation such as the DRC, the term peace raises a couple of questions: What is peace? Does that mean peace for the woman who was raped? Does it mean peace for the man who saw his wife and/or daughter being raped? Where is peace for those who witnessed their families being slaughtered and their houses burnt to the ground? 
It seems that for the victims of war in the DRC, ‘peace’ means positive peace, one in which justice is addressed, human rights are respected and people live without any fear (as opposed to a negative peace such as a ceasefire, which is negative because it stops the war but does not address other issues). And this ‘peace’ has to be based on the concept of justice. There is no peace without justice. But this justice has to be taken into the holistic sense. If the objective, however, is to protect war criminals from facing the law, then this strategy has to be condemned. It will send the wrong message to the victims of the war. It will further undermine any reconciliation between victims and their perpetrators, for the victims will feel betrayed by the government. Accountability for human rights violations is an important instrument in breaking the cycle of violence and impunity and is an indispensable component of the process of healing the wounds. 
Mechanisms of reparation in the DRC

In principle, at the national level, victims have two mechanisms through which to seek reparations: the judicial and non-judicial mechanisms.

- Judicial mechanisms 


The judicial reparation mechanism in the DRC is mostly based on reparation proceedings associated with the criminal prosecution of individual perpetrators, with victims participating and seeking reparation as civil claimants. The challenge here is the fact that, many victims of violence and atrocity have not have access to the courts or the resources needed to undertake lengthy and costly prosecutions that may or may not culminate in the payment of reparation (financial constraint, lack of independence of the judiciary, corruption, etc). Also, satisfactory national prosecutions require sufficient capacity. The existing judicial system in the DRC has been heavily criticized. In one of the reports to the Security Council, the Secretary-General has even concluded that: The human rights situation is further aggravated by a justice system controlled at every level by the State, and unable to grant defendants the most elementary procedural guarantees. 
Moreover, in the case of the DRC, the judicial reparation mechanism can also be strengthened by the International Criminal Court (ICC), as victims have a right to seek reparations under Article 75 of the Statute and the Trust Fund for Victims will implement such awards. However, pursuant to Rule 98 of the Rules for Procedure and Evidence, the resources of the Trust Fund may also be used “for the benefit of victims” of crimes “within the jurisdiction” of the Court. Moreover, a role for the Trust Fund can be foreseen in situations where it is impossible for the Court to make individual awards or where the number of victims and the scope, forms and modalities make a collective award more appropriate. In practice, these situations may arise quite often. 
If not, the victims’ prospects for achieving judicial remedy and reparation will remain minimal. That is true because, before the latest arrest and transfer to the International Criminal Court of Thomas Lubanga Dyilo , a founder and leader of the Union des Patriotes Congolais (UPC) on 17th March 2006, who is alleged to have committed war crimes as set out in article 8 of the Statute, committed in the territory of the DRC since July 2002, no-one has ever been brought to justice for serious human rights abuses and war crimes perpetrated in DRC - a situation compounded by a shattered justice system.
It is hoped that the Court under article 75 of the Statute will provide reparation to the victims, irrespective of Lubanga’s guilt. The benefit of victims from reparations under the ICC may not necessarily be linked to finding a perpetrator guilty. The Court is yet to pronounce itself on this. 
- Non-judicial mechanisms

One should note that there is no discussion of a national reparations program to be adopted by the new established Government. But, there is a wide variety of non-judicial mechanisms and the Truth Commission is one of them. In fact, truth commissions have been multiplying rapidly around the world and gaining increasing attention in recent years. 

They are established to officially investigate and provide an accurate record of the broader pattern of abuses committed during repression and civil war. “Truth commissions today”, according to Jose Alvarez, Professor of International Law at Columbia University, are inescapable tools in establishing the truth of past crimes and a means for victim recompense and instruments to promote peace and reconciliation. Most recently, the United Nations Secretary-General’s report on “The rule of law and transitional justice in conflict and post-conflict societies” praised them as “a potentially valuable complementary tool in the quest for justice and reconciliation” and in “restoring public trust in national institutions of governance”. The increased interest in truth commissions is, in part, a reflection of the limited success in judicial approaches to accountability, and the obvious need for other measures to recognise past wrongs and confront, punish or reform those persons and institutions that were responsible for violations. Successful prosecutions of perpetrators of massive atrocities have been few, as under-resourced and often politically compromised judicial systems struggle to confront politically contentious crimes. With an eye on building a human rights culture for the future, many new governments have turned to mechanisms outside the judicial system to confront, as well learn from the horrific crimes of the past. But, a truth commission should at the same time never be allowed to circumvent international human rights law or, more specifically, to ignore the punitive demands of the ICC (prosecutions). 

The U.N. Commission on Human Rights, in a resolution that proclaimed the importance of combating impunity for all human rights violations that constitute crimes has also stressed not only the duty to “prosecute or extradite” but that truth commissions are complements to, not substitutes for, a justice process. UN Commission on Human Rights, Impunity, resolution 2002/79, para.10 “Welcomes in this regard the establishment in some States of commissions of truth and reconciliation to address human rights violations that have occurred there, welcomes the publication in those States of the reports of those commissions and encourages other States where serious human rights violations have occurred in the past to establish appropriate mechanisms to expose such violations, to complement the justice system”. 

Despite their differences in mandate, scope and approach, “truth commissions” are generally viewed as a starting point for national reconciliation and reparative measures. It is notable that the work of a truth commission, when properly done, should lead to some form of reparation. That is true especially during the truth telling process and after the release of the report and its recommendations. In this regard, one should note that trough a well functioning TRC, victims may find satisfaction in the form of a public apology from the officials or individual perpetrators, commemoration, tributes to the victims and so on. This is the healing effect of Truth Commissions. It has been recognized that allowing victims to speak out and be heard, investigating and establishing the truth about violations, public acknowledgements (possibly combined with apologies or expressions of regret), memorials to victims and recommendations to reform public institutions - all are important aspects of a full reparation package. Other reparation needs of victims are at least partly dependent on some form of payment: analysis of a representative sample of statements before the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) revealed that deponents’ prime expectation of the TRC was financial assistance. The second most common request was for investigation of violations. 
However, in the DRC, despite the fact that the truth and reconciliation commission was established in July 2004, it is unable to conduct investigations into human rights abuses. The Congolese TRC, the Commission Vérité et Réconciliation (CVR), is one of the five transitional institutions: « S’agissant de nature juridique de la CVR, il y a lieu de rappeler qu’elle est une émanation de l’ancienne ‘Commission Paix et Réconciliation’ du Dialogue Inter Congolais tenu a Sun City en République Sud Africaine en 2002, et qu’elle fut instituée par la résolution DIC/CPR/04. La loi CVR a pour cadre juridique le point V de l’Accord global et inclusif qui prévoit la création pendant la Transition des Institutions d’appui a la démocratie ainsi que l’article 154 de la Constitution. La loi organique, telle que adoptée par l’Assemblée Nationale précise, en son article 1er que la CVR est un organisme de droit congolais, dotée de la personnalité juridique. Elle est reconnue autonome, neutre et indépendante d’action vis-à-vis des autres institutions de la république et exerce avec neutralité les pleins pouvoirs dans touts les matières relevant de sa compétence. La CVR est donc une institution de la Transition. Elle n’est pas une juridiction, mais plutôt une institution non juridictionnelle appelée, le cas échéant a collaborer avec les instances judiciaires tant nationales qu’internationales. L’article 4 de la loi organique précise que la mission de la CVR est de retablir la vérité, de promouvoir la paix, la justice, la réparation, le pardon et la réconciliation en vue de consolider l’unité nationale » 

Although the Congolese TRC was established in the course of negotiations between the composantes during the Inter-Congolese Dialogue , it was not created and is not operated transparently in order to sustain democratic legitimacy and therefore, to work for reparation. There is a clear lack of citizen involvement in the creation and functioning of the TRC, and openness to ensure domestic legitimacy. Moreover, there are many criticisms because commissioners come from different factions previously or currently involved in the conflict and were not chosen by means of a process which tried to ensure a democratic spirit and practice, and transparency.
Therefore, it seems that the purpose of such a commission is to become a Truth Omission instead of a Truth Commission and cannot satisfy the quest for reparation in the DRC. There is also the question of source of funds, given the vast number of victims who may claim reparations.

There is a need for a discussion on reparation mechanism in the DRC. It is also important to note that from the Mobutu regime to the current government, except the commemoration of the “Martyrs of Independence Day”, there have been insignificant other types of reparation as outlined in the Van Boven Principles, such as apologies, memorials. Finally, although each country must formulate its own policy with respect to past human rights abuses and reconciliation, in the interest of Congolese victims, the government must put in place several measures aimed as symbolic reparations, including - the construction of a national monuments bearing the names of all of the victims of the conflict; - recognition of the good name of the victims and of the serious crimes of which they were victims; and - the institution of a national holiday in memory of the victims of the conflict and to serve as a symbol of national reconciliation. 

Conclusion

It has always been said that there will be no peace without justice. Much as Truth and Reconciliation Commissions will be established for the purposes of telling the truth, forgiving and forgetting, there remains one important aspect in the whole spectrum of peace, justice and reconciliation - this is, the perpetrators of international crimes and gross violations of human rights and humanitarian law in armed conflicts will be punished and there will be justice for the victims of the armed conflicts. Fear of punishment typically deters criminal behaviour and in any case it stops the criminal from harming society while she or he is in prison. Deterrence is a justification for punishment when it produces more good than evil. Indeed, as Jeremy Bentham’s “utility theory of punishment” states: punishment should be severe enough that the trade-off is not worth it. More serious crimes should carry more severe penalties. Utilitarianism argues that the right act or policy is that which would cause “the greatest happiness for the greatest number;” meaning that punishment is aimed at satisfying the majority-as in this case of the victims of armed conflict. However, one can argue that this is not the case in the context of mass atrocities and the punishment model has not shown to be very effective in deterring war criminals from committing war crimes. In the case of DRC, it is difficult to punish all the perpetrators and relying on the Rwandan genocide case, it is impossible to trial all the genocidaires. Therefore, although justice is crucial after violations of human rights, it may not be possible or practical especially in the case of mass atrocities. International tribunals are useful, but they are not the full solution. They are hugely expensive and can try only a small group of perpetrators, the most “responsible”. Ironically, many times, those who are tried are not the most responsible but the most “available”.

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Sunday, March 30, 2008

Truth commissions and prosecutions: Two sides of the same coin or differents tools?

By Dr. Yav Katshung Joseph

Abstract:

This brief argues that as truth commissions multiply around the world it is important to look at their relationship to prosecutions and justice in an immediate and historical sense. Are TRC’s designed to generate more truth, more justice, reparations, and genuine institutional reform? Or are they designed to undermine the State’s and society’s legal, ethical and political obligations to their people?


INTRODUCTION



Truth commissions have been multiplying rapidly around the world and gaining increasing attention in recent years. They are proposed for different reasons and driven by diverse motives. They can be used firstly, for the purpose of national reconciliation and in the interests of the society; secondly, sometimes they can be used to avoid accountability or prosecution and merely to shield an offender from justice. Following recent outbreaks of violence in the aftermath of Kenya’s presidential election last December, stakeholders continue to make strides toward peace. Parties have agreed among other things to a Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Commission, which will be established through an Act of Parliament. The Commission will inquire into human rights violations, including those committed by the state, groups, or individuals. This includes but is not limited to politically motivated violence, assassinations, community displacements, settlements, and evictions. It will also inquiry into major economic crimes, in particular grand corruption, historical land injustices, and the illegal or irregular acquisition of land, especially as these relate to conflict or violence. Other historical injustices shall also be investigated. The commission will primarily focus on events dating back to independence, December 12, 1963 up to February 28, 2008. However, it will as necessary look at antecedents to this date in order to understand the nature, root causes, or context that led to such violations, violence, or crimes. This gives us opportunity to share views on adequate truth commissions and their relationship with prosecutions.

TENSIONS BETWEEN TRUTH COMMISSIONS AND PROSECUTIONS

Very often, when a country wishes to move from dictatorship to democracy or from war to peace, various ways may be tried and these include trials in an international or national court of law and non-punitive approaches such as truth commissions. Thus, “…a country’s decisions about how to deal with its past should depend on many things: the type of dictatorship or war endured, the type of crimes committed, the level of societal complicity, the nation’s political culture and history, the conditions necessary for dictatorship to reoccur, the abruptness of the transition, and the new democratic government’s power and resources [1].” One may adds the “interests” of the country.

Different countries have chosen widely different strategies to deal with the past including prosecutions in one hand and, truth commissions and other non-punitive approaches, in the other. Although justice is crucial after violations of human rights, it may not be possible or practical. International tribunals are useful, but they are not the full solution. They are hugely expensive and can try only a small group of perpetrators, the most “responsible”. Ironically, many times, those who are tried are not the most responsible but the most “available” in the country. Therefore, justice becomes extremely selective and seems to be the way of granting de facto amnesty to those who fled the country and those responsible. Then come the necessity of other non-judicial mechanisms such as truth commissions not as a panacea for all the challenges of transition, or an alternative, but as a complement way to be used by broken societies, in order to bring the benefits of justice to the victims and to the political culture.

However, this is challenging and there are always tensions between the requirements of the criminal justice system and those of non-punitive approaches to gross and systematic human rights violations. Rightly, Charles Villa-Vicencio pointed out that, “the tension between justice and reconciliation and revenge, prosecution and amnesty is grounded as much in principled debate as in a tug-of-war between deep emotions, unresolved memories and uncertain futures. It is a tension that is best not collapsed into an attempted neat synthesis of a complex set of contradictions. The contradictions need to be sustained. The demands of the one side need to impact on the other. It is through honest encounter that opposing groups stand the best chance of knowing that they need one another. It is then that new possibilities begin to be imagined-and sometimes realised [2].

DOMESTIC TRUTH COMMISSIONS AND PROSECUTIONS: REACHING FORWARD

Truth Commissions are established to officially investigate and provide an accurate record of the broader pattern of abuses committed during repression, civil war and unjust periods. There have been more than thirty truth commissions worldwide, including in Sierra Leone, DRC, Morocco, and more importantly South Africa. “Truth commissions today”, according to Jose Alvarez, Professor of International Law at Columbia University, “are inescapable tools in establishing the truth of past crimes and a means for victim recompense and instruments to promote peace and reconciliation.”

Most recently, the United Nations Secretary-General’s report on “The rule of law and transitional justice in conflict and post-conflict societies” praised them as “a potentially valuable complementary tool in the quest for justice and reconciliation” and in “restoring public trust in national institutions of governance [3]”. The increased interest in truth commissions is, in part, a reflection of the limited success in judicial approaches to accountability, and the obvious need for other measures to recognise past wrongs and confront, punish or reform those persons and institutions that were responsible for violations. Successful prosecutions of perpetrators of massive atrocities have been few, as under-resourced and often politically compromised judicial systems struggle to confront politically contentious crimes. With an eye on building a human rights culture for the future, many new governments have turned to mechanisms outside the judicial system to confront, as well as learn from the horrific crimes of the past [4].

However, a truth commission should at the same time never be allowed to circumvent international human rights law or, more specifically, to ignore the punitive demands of the criminal justice.

Related to the South African case, where there was a Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) with a possibility to grant a conditional amnesty [5] in exchange of a full disclosure and shown remorse, could we say according to the Rome Statute that, the TRC decisions or proceedings were taken for the purpose of shielding the person concerned from criminal responsibility?

One should take into account and acknowledge that the South African TRC was democratic and genuine. The purpose was not to shift or to hide someone or a group from prosecution. It was in the interest of peace, reconciliation, etc. In my view and for many others, the South African TRC was not there to shield perpetrators but to seek the truth for national reconciliation. South Africa acted in good faith; the TRC was established by the best efforts of negotiators to end violations of human rights. This is justice, to my view and I may say in the interests of the entire country/society, not in the interest of prosecuting some few and not others, and still walk free as if they were granted de facto amnesty.

Emphasising this argument, Juan Mendez, stated that:

“In most parts of the world, the South African example stands out as an attempt to achieve reconciliation and forgiveness without impunity. Others decry the fact that most perpetrators of the worst crimes of apartheid did evade justice. In my view, however, the South African exercise with truth, justice and reconciliation is notable for its insistence on hearing the victims, consulting with all members of society, allowing participation by all stakeholders, and conducting the exercise in complete transparency. It is in this sense that the South African example continues to inspire all those who decide to turn a page in a country’s history without forgetting the plight of those who suffered [6].”

Therefore, we may pause with Naomi Roht-Arriaza that, if perpetrators appear before an independent and democratic truth commission that hears applications for conditional and accountable amnesty, they should not face prosecution by the ICC. In this case, amnesty (conditional) is granted for the purpose of domestic reconciliation and not to shield him/her/(the perpetrator) from criminal prosecution [7]. However, can all truth commissions have the same purpose of not shielding perpetrators? It is important to draw the line in order to avoid some contradictions between truth commissions and prosecutions. The next point will deal with that.

THE QUESTION OF ADEQUATE TRUTH COMMISSIONS IN ORDER TO COMPLY WITH INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

We should ask ourselves if all truth commissions should be considered as genuine and serve the interests of the country. As we may know, in some countries the purpose of a truth commission may be not genuine and reasonable. This is challenging and it will be useful to deal at the case-by-case level. Rightly, Professor James Crawford of the University of Cambridge has said in relation to Article 17 of the Rome Statute:

“I think there is a question about truth commissions, because you can’t say a priori which ones are a reasonable response to the situation, and which ones are a cover-up. It’s going to require extreme care by the prosecutor. There may be some problem there with the capacity to subvert those processes if they are reasonable, and we’ll just have to hope that the institutions within the court take a sensible view about it. But complementarity extends to covering internal processes which don’t necessarily involve prosecutions of individuals, so there’s no reason why the principle of complementarity ought not to cover an appropriately constituted truth commission [8].”

Moreover, Charles Villa-Vicencio, talking about truth commissions states that: “… They demand fewer resources than courts and, if designed properly, can provide some accountability [9].” Using the words such as “if designed properly”, meant that we may find some not properly designed and therefore, the need for benchmarks in order to comply with international law. Can we say that the South African TRC was able to provide accountability and was consistent with international law?

Despite some few critiques, the South African TRC is internationally recognised, and has been favourably endorsed by numerous international human rights organisations and commentators. The TRC was passed pursuant to a valid Act of Parliament and imposes a form of public procedure and accountability for the actions of perpetrators. It was the country’s decision in favour of peace. This is not impunity because there was political consensus in South Africa that getting as much of the truth out as possible and having fewer, but more effective prosecutions, was a just result. Given that, this was what the majority of the public wanted, that is not impunity.

In this line, speaking on the relationship between the prosecutorial mandate of the ICC and the amnesty administered by the South African TRC, the Secretary-General of the United Nations has observed:

“The purpose of the clause in the Statute (which allows the Court to intervene where the state is ‘unwilling or unable’ to exercise jurisdiction) is to ensure that mass-murderers and other arch-criminals cannot shelter behind a State run by themselves or their cronies, or take advantage of a general breakdown of law and order. No one should imagine that it would apply to a case like South Africa’s, where the regime and the conflict which caused the crimes have come to an end, and the victims have inherited power.

It is inconceivable that, in such a case, the Court would seek to substitute its judgement for that of a whole nation which is seeking the best way to put a traumatic past behind it and build a better future [10]”.

As noted, the South African TRC has been recognized and even endorsed as a valid means of dealing with crimes arising out of apartheid [11]. Moreover, state practice [12], international jurisprudence [13] and authors [14] confirm that the Rome Statute does not preclude a state from utilizing amnesty as an effective means of prosecution. However, what about the Congolese TRC?

In assessing if the Congolese TRC met some minimal requirements to approach legitimacy under international law, one can point out that the Congolese TRC was not created and operated transparently in order to sustain democratic legitimacy. There was a clear lack of citizen involvement in the creation and functioning of the TRC, and openness to ensure domestic legitimacy. There was no endorsement of the TRC and its work as a mechanism of transitional justice. Moreover, there are many critiques because commissioners came from different factions, and were not chosen by means of a process, which tried to ensure a democratic spirit and practice, and transparency. Therefore, it seems that the purpose of such a commission, was to be a “Truth Omission” instead of a “Truth Commission” and cannot encounter support by the international community [15].

In order for truth commissions to merit international legitimacy, Professor Crawford suggested that one possible test would be whether the procedure in question had been freely ratified by the successor regime, “so it’s not just a way that the generals can sign their amnesty on the way out of the door [16].” And for that, Charles Villa-Vicencio [17] helps us by saying that truth commissions needs at a minimum to incorporate the following:

- There needs to be convincing evidence that the majority of citizens endorse the provision as a mechanism of transitional justice;
- The disclosure of as much truth as possible concerning the gross violations of human rights;
- Accountability of those responsible for gross violations of human rights, recognising that this need not to be in the form of retributive sentencing by the state;
- A mechanism needs to be put in place to provide a form of relief or reparation to victims whose rights are suspended by a qualified amnesty provision;
- The suspension of prosecutions in a transitionary situation should not be a pretext for the abrogation of other requirements of international law;
- A forum in which victims and survivors may tell their stories and questions;
- Prosecutions should remain an option both during and after the TRC against those perpetrators who did not adequately participate in the process.

Although we agreed with Charles on these criteria, the last one seems not to be consistent. Truth commissions are not alternative to prosecutions, all are two sides of the same coin and should be used complementarily but sequencing for their success. Saying that “prosecutions should remain an option both during and after the TRC against those perpetrators who did not adequately participate in the process” seems to be too simplistic and could undermine the entire effort to heal the wounds of the nation and to fight against impunity.

In addition to satisfying the above minimum criteria for international legitimacy, a Truth commission should also be created and operated transparently in order to sustain democratic legitimacy. Citizen involvement in the creation of a truth commission, and openness to media coverage of its operations, are necessary to ensure domestic legitimacy [18]. And Juan Mendez put it clearly by saying:

“There are two conditions of legitimacy that we should insist upon for any program of transitional justice. First, transitional justice policy should be developed as part of an open, democratic debate, which includes consultation with and participation of the relevant stakeholders and full transparency of decisions. If decisions about how to reckon with the past are adopted exclusively by the parties to a conflict, without appropriate consultations with the victims of abuse or with society at large, the result will almost always generate dissatisfaction and rejection. Second, transitional justice policy should be contemplated in as comprehensive and holistic an approach as possible. This is not only because there will always be an ‘impunity gap’, meaning that many cases of abuse will not be resolved by trials, thus generating the need for a broader treatment of the universe of violations. It is also because the emerging principles in international law … establish that the obligations of the State are four-fold: to prosecute perpetrators, to unearth the truth, to offer reparations to victims, and to reform abusive public institutions [19].

CONCLUSION

In many transition periods two methods are used to establish record of grave human rights crimes following a conflict/war: prosecutions at national or international level and truth commissions with various names, which investigate situations and submits reports. Both of these two methods are not sufficient and therefore, the need to complement each other.

There is a growing demand for transitional justice mechanisms such as truth commissions, around the world. The problem however, it is to test if all those mechanisms imply good faith. Is the effort designed to generate more truth, more justice, reparations, and genuine institutional reform? If so, they are welcome. If the objective is to evade the State’s and society’s legal, ethical and political obligations to their people, they should be rejected. The answer should be found in the design of the process itself, but also in the degree of participation, consultation, and transparency that surrounds them (e.g. of South Africa).

Moreover, we should start by avoiding seeing truth commissions as an alternative to prosecutions. Even if many of them have been accompanied by grants of amnesty to the major perpetrators of human rights crimes, viewing truth commissions, as substitute for prosecutions is not a right way and can lead to contradictions. Therefore, we should try to consider truth commissions as complementary to national and international prosecutions, not to substitute them. They are two sides of the same coin: transitional justice. However, the processes must be sequenced in a way that one does not affect the effectiveness of the other. Accordingly, Scharf has said, “a country should not rush ahead with prosecutions at the cost of political instability and social upheaval or that every single perpetrator must be brought to justice, an impossible task in most countries that have experienced widespread human rights abuses. By documenting abuses and preserving evidence, a truth commission can enable a country to delay prosecutions until the international community has acted, or the new government is secure enough to take such action against members of the former regime [20].”

Furthermore, it may be useful to examine the utility of conducting prosecutions after Truth commissions as a means of uncovering more “truth” that was not revealed through the process. Because, like in the South African case, if those people who did not apply for amnesty or those whom the amnesty was refused, do not face trials, someone could say that there is de facto amnesty and therefore, the purpose of a TRC was just to shield some perpetrators. In this hypothesis, the process will violate the international law and will not be in the interest of justice (society as a whole). So, we should look on the possibilities to trials for those persons in order to avoid impunity, contradictions and allow the roots of a just society to take hold.

*Dr Yav Katshung Joseph is a Human Rights lawyer and Lecturer at the Faculty of Law, University of Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of Congo.

NOTES

1] Tina Rosenberg, “Afterword: Confronting the Painful Past”, in Martin Meredith, Coming to Terms: South Africa’s Search for Truth, 1999, p 328

2] Charles Villa-Vicencio, “Reconciliation as Political Necessity: Reflections in the wake of Civil and Political Strife”, p.3

3] Paavani Reddy, “Truth and Reconciliation Commissions Instruments for Ending Impunity and Building Lasting Peace” in The Chronicle,
See http://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/2004/issue4/0404p19.html

4] Priscilla Hayner, Same species, different animal: how South Africa compares to truth commissions worldwide, in Charles Villa-Vicencio and Wilhelm Verwoerd, “Looking Back, Reaching Forward: Reflections on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa” UCT Press, 2000, p34-35

5] Boraine, Alexander, “Amnesty in exchange for truth: Evaluating the South African model” in “A country Unmasked” Pgs 258-275

6] Juan E Mendez, “Transitional Justice in Historical Perspective”, Outline, Somerset West Conference, March 28, 2005 Inaugural Address

7] Naomi Roht-Arriaza, “Amnesty and the International Criminal Court”, International Crimes, Peace, and Human Rights: The Role of the International Criminal Court (Ardsley, New York: Transnational Publishers Inc., 2000) at 79.

8] James Crawford, See http://www.crimesofwar.org/onnews/news-us-icc.html (accessed on 4th December 2007)

9] Charles Villa-Vicencio and Erik Doxtader (Ed) 2004, Pieces of the Puzzle: keywords on reconciliation and transitional justice, Cape Town, pp.89-90

10] Charles Villa-Vicencio and Erik Doxtader (Ed) 2004, op.cit, p 91

11] Kader Asmal, International Law & Practice: Dealing with the Past and the South African Experience, 15 AM. U. INT.’L L. REV. 1211, 1228 (2000).

12] Azanian Peoples Organization (AZAPO) v. The President of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (4) S.A.L.R. 671, at 30 (South African Constitutional Court);

13] Prosecutor v. Tadic, Appeals Chamber, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, No. IT-94-1-AR72 (Oct. 2,1995) at 6

14] Leila Nadya Sadat, Universal Jurisdiction, National Amnesties, and Truth Commissions: Reconciling the Irreconcilable, in Stephen Macedo, Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law (2003); Scharf, Amnesty Exception, supra note 33; John T. Holmes, The Principle of Complementarity, in 41-79 The International Criminal Court: The Making of the Rome Statute (Roy S. Lee., ed., 1999); Michael P. Scharf, Swapping Amnesty for Peace: Was there a Duty to Prosecute International Crimes in Haiti?, 31 TEX. INT’L L.J. 1, 4-5 (1996).

15] Critiques reside especially in the way of nomination and the issue of openness by involving civil society and other parties.

16] James Crawford, See http://www.crimesofwar.org/onnews/news-us-icc.html

17] Charles Villa-Vicencio, Truth Commissions, in Charles Villa-Vicencio and Erik Doxtader (Ed) 2004, op.cit., p 92

18] See Andre du Toit, “The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC): Local History, Global Accounting”, in Politique Africaines 92 (2003), p7

19] J. Mendez, 1997. “Accountability for Past Abuses”, Human Rights Quarterly, 19, pp. 255- 282.

20] Michael P. Scharf, “The Case for a Permanent International Truth Commission”, in Duke J. Comp.& Int’Law, Vol.7:375, 1997, p.399

 

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Wednesday, October 3, 2007

The Curse of Oil in the Great Lakes of Africa

I hope they don’t discover oil. Then we will be in real trouble”.[Blood Diamond]

By Dr. Joseph Yav Katshung[i]


Introduction 

To adapt an old metaphor, one could say, when the Great Lakes Region of Africa sneezes, the entire world including Africa catch a cold. Several interconnected elements shaped conflicts in the Great Lakes region, including the interests of neighbouring countries, competition over natural and economic resources concerns over instability and lack of security, and ethnic chauvinism, to name but a few.

 The oil prospects of the Great Lakes region appear at once more dangerous. Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo are sitting on what prospectors believe could be oil reserves of up to one billion barrels in the Albertine Basin which they share.  At the time of writing, the oil region of the eastern DRC was the theatre of clashes culminating in killing of civilians and militaries by the Ugandan and Congolese armies. This is now leading to fears that the lake Albert conflict may spread and make a renewed cross-border conflict involving other negative forces and countries.

This may lead to another case of conflict over resources and well described in a recent movie named “ Blood Diamond” where the old man sighs: “I hope they don’t discover oil. Then we will be in real trouble”.

Yes, one could say that the old man of the above-mentioned movie is right; the Great lakes region of Africa is in real trouble. If realistic possibilities for conflict resolution and transformation are to be developed, concerns about oil and other resources will have to be addressed. This article will focus only on the issue of resources as a source of conflict or a resource for peace and reconstruction and will offer a perspective on how to transform conflicts by using resources as tools of reconciliation and reconstruction in the Great Lakes region.

History of conflict over resources in the Great Lakes Region

One of the most perplexing issues in the Great Lakes region of Africa and especially in the DRC conflict has been, and still is, that of the exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources. Illegal exploitation of the DRC’s mineral resources has been a constant feature in discussions about the war in general and especially in the eastern part of the country. There is a debate about whether the exploitation of mineral resources is a main aim for foreign intervention or whether mining initiatives is a way of financing the war effort. It has long been established that the exploitation of these resources, including ‘coltan’ (columbite-tantalite), gold, and diamonds in the eastern Congo, and diamonds, copper, cobalt, and timber in central DRC, contributed to and exacerbated the conflict in the country. Concerned with reports of pillaging of resources by the foreign forces, the UN Security Council mandated an independent panel to investigate these allegations. In fact, in its presidential statement dated 2 June 2000 (S/PRST/2000/20), the Security Council requested that the Secretary-General establish a Panel of Experts on the illegal exploitation of natural resources and other forms of wealth of the DRC. The objective was to research and analyze the links between the exploitation of the natural resources and other forms of wealth in the DRC and the continuation of the conflict. In its four reports, the UN Panel of Experts has named senior Ugandan and Rwandese armed forces officers and senior government officials and their families, who are allegedly responsible for illegal exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources and other abuses. It has also proposed that measures be taken against the states, individuals and companies most implicated in the exploitation, including travel bans, financial penalties and reductions in aid disbursements. In January 2003, in response to complaints raised by companies and some governments, the Panel’s mandate was extended to 31 October 2003. In its final report from October 2003 the Panel largely documented the nexus of economic exploitation, arms trafficking, and armed conflict, stating that illegal exploitation remains one of the main sources of funding groups involved in perpetuating conflict. The Panel of Experts also listed companies based in Belgium, China, France, Germany, Israel, Spain, the UK, and the United States, that were allegedly involved in the illegal arms trade in the DRC.[1]

Regional actors have been accused of aggression and ‘foreign adventurism’ with regard to Congolese territory and natural resources. In other words, while parties to the conflict in the DRC may have been motivated originally by security concerns, their continued presence in the DRC can be attributed to economic gains derived from the DRC. The report further stated that criminal groups linked to the armies of Rwanda, Uganda and Zimbabwe and the Government of the DRC have benefited from such conflicts. This is critical to the peace process, because according to reports, these ‘groups will not disband voluntarily … they have built up a self-financing war economy centred on mineral exploitation’.[2]

The rationale for intervention by neighbouring states became self-enforcing and the localised conflicts became regional. As such, the conflicts within and among the countries of the Great Lakes region require regionally based and targeted solutions, along with the cooperation of other, relevant neighbouring states.

 Current situation:  Oil wars in the Great Lakes of Africa?

 Uganda and the DRC share Lake Albert, which has become an important new frontier in the search for oil on the continent. Lake Albert, also Albert Nyanza and formerly Lake Mobutu Sese Seko, is one of the Great Lakes of Africa. It is Africa’s seventh largest lake, and ranks as the world’s twenty-third largest lake by volume. It is located in the center of the continent, on the border between the DRC and Uganda. It is the northernmost of the chain of lakes in the Great Rift Valley; it is about 160 km long and 30 km wide, with a maximum depth of 51 m, and a surface elevation of 619 m above sea level. In 1864, the explorer Samuel Baker discovered the lake; he named it after the deceased Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. The late and former Congolese president Mobutu temporarily named the lake after himself.

 Conflict is arising over oil found in Lake Albert. Reserves are estimated at less than 100,000 barrels a day for about 10 years when production starts. Tensions began to rise at the end of July beginning of August when a unit of Congolese Armed Forces (FARDC), captured four Ugandan marines who had apparently strayed towards the Congolese west bank of Lake Albert. But on August 3, the situation grew serious. FARDC soldiers patrolling the lake attacked an oil exploration barge belonging to Canada’s Heritage Oil Corporation and killed a British contractor working for Canada’s Heritage Oil Corp. The Ugandan army retaliated and a Congolese soldier died in the short shoot-out while a Ugandan soldier was wounded.

Since then, tension has been mounting along that part of the Uganda-Congo frontier that runs north-south down the 160 kilometre-long lake - although the alignment of the border has never been precisely defined. Following the discovery of oil in the Albertine Basin, both the Ugandan and Congolese armies have been deploying heavily around the shores, with some observers saying there is now a threat of all-out war.[3]

To ease the tensions, Congolese president Joseph Kabila and his counterpart, Ugandan president Yoweri Museveni, held a one-day summit meeting in Tanzania on September 8 in an attempt to sort out the border dispute. They signed an agreement to immediately pull back their troops 150 kilometers from the border to ease tensions over an oil-rich border lake. They agreed to work together to explore and exploit oil in the Lake Albert area and to lay a joint pipeline to distribute any oil and they signed the agreement in the presence of Tanzanian President Jakaya Kikwete, diplomats and journalists. They also agreed that a joint team will begin work to demarcate the contested area of the lake. Further, they agreed to meet once a year and to raise their diplomatic missions to ambassadorial level to help improve relations.

However, few days after the meeting and agreements another military clash erupted on the lake on September 24. Reuters reported that six civilians were killed when Ugandan soldiers opened fire on a Congolese passenger boat on Lake Albert. In a conflicting version of the shooting incident, Uganda’s military reported two soldiers killed, one from each country, in what it said was a gunfight during a dispute over an oil exploration vessel working on the border lake.[4]

There is therefore an urgent need of transforming resources from source of conflict to options for reconciliation and reconstruction in the Great Lakes region.

 Concluding remarks: Transforming the Oil concern from the Source of Conflict to a Resource for Peace in the Great Lakes Region

Reconciliation and reconstruction are essential elements of peacebuilding. The key to transforming conflicts is to build strong, equitable relations where distrust and fear were once the norm.[5]

In the Great Lakes region, as in many other African countries, violent conflict has become the ‘normal’ state of affairs. Control of economic resources has become an important factor in motivating and sustaining armed conflicts. Complex political economies, which often hide behind the outward symbols of statehood and national sovereignty, have been rooted in the pursuance of conflict. The challenge therefore is to transform regional and national political ‘parasite’ economies that rely on violent conflict into healthy systems based on political participation, social and economic inclusion, and respect for human rights and the rule of law.

Accordingly, any attempt at transforming conflicts to ensure reconciliation and reconstruction in the region requires stimulating positive developments in the region. Such developments will reassure the affected countries that their security and economic interests are better served through fostering stability and improving relations with their neighbours than through allowing their neighbours’ turmoil to deflect them from their objective of peace, reconciliation, democracy, and economic development.

Moreover, in terms of ensuring security, ignoring the tensions and misunderstanding among the DRC and Uganda will have far-reaching implications for the stability and socioeconomic development of the region because resources will be diverted from human and economic development to warfare. For this reason it is important for these countries to cooperate towards the restoration of peaceful dialogue and cordial interstate relations. In this regard, armed incursions and clashes can lead to rising tensions and full-blown interstate armed conflict which, if not promptly addressed, will affect the long-term well-being and socioeconomic development of both populations.

The Great Lakes region is rich in the natural resources that are at stake for many actors in the conflict. However, natural resources also harbour potential for post-conflict rehabilitation and development. Countries should therefore examine ways of limiting the exploitation of such resources -especially oil in this case- for the purpose of funding conflict. They should furthermore seek to identify and promote the means by which such resources can be safeguarded and managed in a way that will reduce conflict and ensure benefit to the population. Equally, there is a need to develop institutions and frameworks for the integration and transformation of the informal economy to a formal economy, governed by a reasonable rule of law, transparency and efficiency, without marginalising local and regional actors.

 

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[1] See: - UN Security Council “Report of the Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth in the Democratic Republic of Congo”, S/2001/357, 12 April 2001; UN Security Council “Addendum to the Report of the Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth in the Democratic Republic of Congo”, S/2001/1072, 13 November 2001;UN Security Council “Final Report of the Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth in the Democratic Republic of Congo”, S/2002/1146.[2] UN Security Council “Final Report of the Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth in the Democratic Republic of Congo”, S/2002/1146

 

[3] Henry Wasswa, Uganda: Oil war fears. Growing military clashes between Uganda and DRC over oil threaten to turn into a full-blown war, Institute for War and Peace Reporting (IWPR), AR No. 136, 2-Oct-07

[4] “ Confused Uganda-DRC border shooting kills 6: U.N.”, Sep 25, 2007

http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL2421970820070925?feedType=RSS&feedName=worldNews

 

[5] Kriesberg, L 1998. Constructive conflicts: from escalation to settlement. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.

 


[i] Dr. Joseph Yav is a lecturer at the Faculty of Law, University of Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of Congo. He is also the executive director of the CERDH (Centre d’Etudes et de Recherche en Droits de l’Homme, Democratie et Justice Transitionnelle/Centre for Human Rights, Democracy and Transitional Justice Studies.) and Coordinator of the UNESCO Chair for Human Rights.  Email: joyav22@yahoo.fr   and joseyav@gmail.com

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Sunday, September 30, 2007

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Tuesday, July 10, 2007



 
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Saturday, June 30, 2007

No poverty reduction without human rights, democratic governance, peace and security

In light of the enormous challenges facing the global community to eradicate poverty, the international development community in 2000 adopted specific targets for poverty reduction, now known as the MDGs. The eight MDGs seek to achieve a number of goals: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education; promote gender equality; reduce child mortality; improve maternal health; fight HIV/Aids, malaria and other diseases; increase environmental sustainability; and forge a global partnership for development. The overarching goal is to halve income poverty worldwide by 2015.

Despite the commitments contained in the MDGs, poverty and hunger is on the increase resulting in an ever-growing disparity between rich and poor, between and within nations. Africa exemplifies these particular challenges: the challenge of peace, the struggle against poverty and the struggle for development. It is not enough merely to recognise the fact that there are problems and challenges. The bigger issue is what can be done to respond to all of these challenges.

As many critiques have noted, among the shortcomings of the MDGs, it is always emphasized their insufficient coverage of human rights, gender and employment issues. There is a need to address a shared commitment to promoting the interconnected goals of development, peace and security, and respect for human rights.

Human rights and poverty

Despite the international mandate for a human rights approach to poverty eradication, such an approach, though based on venerable antecedents, has tended to be neglected in justifications for the eradication of poverty. From the human rights point of view, the ideal of free human beings enjoying freedom from fear and want can be achieved only if conditions are created whereby everyone may enjoy his or her economic, social and cultural rights, as well as his or her civil and political rights. In this regard, article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights stipulates that:

Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, … or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.

Therefore, the eradication of widespread poverty, including its most persistent forms, and the full enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights and civil and political rights remain interrelated goals. Human rights may not only be used as an approach to attaining the goods entailed in the MDGs. They are entailed in the goals set by the MDGs themselves in so far as they seek the attainment of a certain minimum way of life for people.

Democratic Governance

Democratic governance is central to the achievement of the MDGs, as it provides the ‘enabling environment’ for the realisation of the MDGs and, in particular, the elimination of poverty. The critical importance of democratic governance in the developing world was highlighted at the Millennium Summit of 2000, where the world’s leaders made a solemn resolution – “[to] spare no effort to promote democracy and strengthen the rule of law, as well as respect for all internationally recognized human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development.” A consensus was reached which recognised that improving the quality of democratic institutions and processes, and managing the changing roles of the state and civil society in an increasingly globalised world must underpin national efforts to reduce poverty, sustain the environment, and promote human development.

Since then, more countries than ever before are working to build democratic governance. Their challenge however, is to develop institutions and processes that are more responsive to the needs of ordinary citizens, including the poor. African leaders should develop a greater capacity to deliver basic services to those most in need. CSOs should assist in doing this process.

Links between development, Peace and security

Peace and security are a prerequisite of poverty elimination. In fact, without peace and security there can be no lasting development and poverty reduction. The lack of, and failures in development can be seen as contributing to instability and the eruption of conflict. Experience demonstrates that poverty, hopelessness, inequity and marginalisation are often among the root causes of devastating conflict. In crisis situations, and in societies emerging from conflict, human rights are often violated. International support for governance mechanisms leading to the restoration of the rule of law is important for the protection of human rights.

Development and security are inextricably linked. A more secure world is only possible if poor countries are given a real chance to develop. In one hand, extreme poverty and infectious diseases threaten many people directly, but they also provide a fertile breeding-ground for other threats, including civil conflict. Even people in rich countries will be more secure if their governments help poor countries to defeat poverty and disease by meeting the Millennium Development Goals. If completed, it will half global poverty by 2015. Consequently, the international community should not only view ‘soft’ threats as part of the development agenda but also be an important component of the peace and security agenda.

On the other hand, with the “blood diamond” effect, one can say that “war has become profitable”. People, who are making money out of war, have a financial interest to ensure that conflict continues. Such phenomena are not unique to Africa . Conflict prevention and resolution and people centred development therefore demands a striving for good governance, inter alia, respect for human rights and rule of law, promotion of transparency and accountability in government and enhancing of administrative and institutional capacity.

What is needed is a holistic approach to the peace and security agenda. The root causes for conflict – poverty, human rights abuses, lack of democracy – must be tackled. There is a need for enhancing focus on conflict prevention, which includes both sustainable social and economic development to prevent conflicts in the first place and post-conflict efforts to prevent them from reigniting. While it is often more easy to raise money for humanitarian efforts than longer-term development assistance, it could in fact be cheaper to prevent conflict than to pay for the damage done afterwards.

Conflict after conflict demonstrates the importance of good governance and viable government institutions. Unequal distribution of economic and political power causes conflict, and governance deficits make conflicts unmanageable. The development cooperation should now consciously gear towards contributing to peace building and conflict prevention.

Conclusion

Alleviating poverty is too daunting a task to be just left to government. It needs an integrated and holistic approach of all stakeholders to harmonise their activities at national and State levels for all the peoples of the world. In developing countries, implementation of the Millennium Goals must focus on mobilizing domestic resources, prioritising budget expenditure on the MDGs, and strengthening human rights, democracy and good governance as specified in the Millennium Declaration

We need to link the agenda of development, human rights and extreme poverty, as well as efforts to empower people living in poverty to participate in decision-making processes on policies that affect them.. We cannot have security amidst starvation and we cannot build peace without alleviating poverty and we cannot have either without a better environment. Only a peaceful society can work its way up to creating the institutions ripe for development and free itself from injustices and human rights abuses. Suffice is to say, every year around the world millions of families’ lives and livelihoods are endangered, and entire communities are displaced due to conflicts - over resources like land, water or oil, between ethnic or religious groups, or over political and social control. In many places, addressing issues of hunger, poverty, and suffering cannot begin until conflicts are resolved and peace established. At the same time, peace building efforts must be tied to the very causes of conflict itself – inequities – and result in improvements in people’s everyday needs.

 

 

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Tuesday, June 26, 2007

D.R.Congo: Healing the wounds of war through reparations

As the elected leaders of a post-conflict state, the DRC government’s top priorities must be to heal the wounds that have been inflicted on many Congolese by colonialism and civil wars in that country. “Victims of serious human rights violations in the DRC are begging for justice and reparations. The new government should place this issue on its agenda in order to grant them reparations. It is true that reparation takes time. However, a step must be taken.”

Introduction

Some outbursts of violence between soldiers of the presidential guards “DSSP” and the guards and private army of presidential contender Jean-Pierre Bemba marred the announcement of the election results in the DRC on 20 August. Two hours before the announcement by electoral officials that a runoff is to take place, soldiers from both rival contenders have been involved in a number of attacks. Since none of the 32 presidential candidates who contested in the 30 July elections won 50% plus of the vote, the DRC will hold a runoff election between Joseph Kabila (44.81% of the vote) and Bemba (20.03% of the vote). The fighting left at least 16 victims dead, with many more wounded, but the overall toll is not known and the two sides denied responsibility for the escalation in violence.

The need for unity must take account of the duty to remember and the right to justice necessary to all credible, lasting processes of reconciliation. Accountability for human rights violations is an important instrument in breaking the cycle of impunity, and is an indispensable component of the process of healing the wounds of grave violations committed in the DRC, reconciliation, reconstruction, and peace. It is also the foundation for post-conflict reconstruction based on the rule of law and respect for human rights.

As the focus on a national and international level is towards the post-election period in the DRC, we should also not forget the nightmare in which Congolese citizens have been living from the colonial period till today. The elected government must address the question of reparations for victims of human rights violations in the DRC.

To put this into perspective, over the last decade there have been intense debates internationally and locally about reparation for victims of gross and systematic human rights violations. Discussions arise in post-conflict situations regarding serious violations of human rights, such as genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and other forms of injustices of the past. In the DRC, millions of people have been severely affected by the conflicts and violence of the past.

If we are to get over the past and build national unity and reconciliation, we must make sure that people who suffered gross human rights abuses are acknowledged by providing them with reparation. These measures cannot bring back the dead, nor can they adequately compensate for pain and suffering suffered, but they can improve the quality of life for victims of gross human rights violations and/or their dependants. However, one important question is posed: how does a nation like the DRC seek to repair harm, restore rights, and build trust when the number of victims runs to millions over the period from colonial times to the Mobutu regime, and the 1996-1997 Kabila-led war, and the 1998-2003 war and the continuing conflict in some parts of the country? [1]

The question of reparation in the DRC

The Congolese have had to deal with violence and conflict since the DRC’s independence from Belgium in 1960 and even before independence. It is for this reason that the questions on when and how to repair the harm inflicted to victims should be put on the agenda. However, this has not been the case in this country and there appears little discussion on the possible processes available and appropriate to secure justice for the victims of the gross and systematic human rights violations.

To ensure that justice translates into accountability and punishment for perpetrators, and, on the other hand, reparation or redress for victims, is not simply a moral imperative. It is a political necessity to combat a culture of impunity stretching unbroken from colonial times through the Mobutu regime, till today. The elected government of the DRC should be pushed to break away from this culture of impunity.

Mechanisms of reparation in the DRC

In principle, at the national level, victims have two mechanisms through which to seek reparation: the judicial and non-judicial mechanisms.

Judicial mechanisms

The judicial reparation mechanism in the DRC is mostly based on reparation proceedings associated with the criminal prosecution of individual perpetrators, with victims participating and seeking reparation as civil claimants. The challenge here is that many victims of violence and atrocity may not have access to the courts or the resources needed to undertake lengthy and costly prosecutions that are not guaranteed to culminate in the payment of reparation. Judicial reparation mechanism should be strengthened by the International Criminal Court (ICC). If not, the victims’ prospects for achieving judicial remedy and reparation will remain minimal. The case of Thomas Lubanga Dyilo [2] proves this point. Dyilo, a founder and leader of the Union des Patriotes Congolais (UPC), was arrested and transferred on the 17 March 2006 to the International Criminal Court. He is accused of committing war crimes as set out in article 8 of the Statute. However, so far, no one else has been brought to justice for serious human rights abuses and war crimes perpetrated in DRC - a situation compounded by a shattered justice system.

We hope that the Court under article 75 of the Statute will provide reparation to the victims, if Dyilo is found guilty. [3]

Non-judicial mechanisms

There are a wide variety of non-judicial mechanisms and the Congolese Truth Commission is one of them. The work of a truth commission, when properly carried out, should automatically lead to some form of reparation. However, in the DRC, despite the fact that the truth and reconciliation commission was established in July 2004, it is unable to conduct investigations into human rights abuses. The Congolese TRC was not created and is not operated transparently in order to sustain democratic legitimacy and therefore, to work for reparation. There is a clear lack of citizen involvement in the creation and functioning of the TRC, and a lack of openness to ensure domestic legitimacy. Moreover, there are many criticisms because commissioners come from different factions previously or currently involved in the conflict and were not chosen by means of a transparent process which espoused a democratic spirit, practice.

Therefore, it seems that the purpose of such a commission, is to become a Truth Omission instead of a Truth Commission. As such it cannot satisfy the quest for reparation in the DRC.[4] There is also the question of source of funds, given the vast number of victims who may claim reparations.

Trends towards reparation in the DRC

The question arises: how should reparation be done? The whole process can become a difficult task especially when emerging from a protracted conflict, with ethnic divisions. It should be noted that not all perpetrators can be brought to book if such prosecutions both outstrip available resources and risk a dangerous frailty, further divisions, possible balkanisation and instability.

Also, one delicate question relates to contributions from foreign governments and individuals. How possible is it for foreign countries and individuals being held accountable for their roles in the civil war to pay reparation? For instance, in the recent judgement by the International Court of Justice (ICJ), Uganda was found liable to compensate the DRC for violations of public international law, international human rights law, and international humanitarian law. The amount of money to be paid in reparation is still to be determined through bilateral negotiations between Uganda and the DRC. It is unlikely that victims will benefit from it.

On a positive note, on 12 April 2006, the Military Garnison Court in Songo Mboyo [5] in the DRC sentenced seven military officers of the Armed Forces of the DRC (FARDC) to life imprisonment. This after the FARDC battalion based in Songo Mboyo(troops of the ex-Liberation Movement of Congo ), rebelled against its commanders who they accused of withholding their army salaries, robbed almost all the houses in the villages of Songo-Mboyo and Bongandanga and then committed collective rape of at least 119 women and girls on 21 December 2003. Many of the women were less than 18 years old.
As a form of reparation, each victim’s family will be paid compensation of 10,000 US dollars. The other victims who were raped will each receive 5,000 US dollars Compensations ranging between 500 to 200 US dollars are to be set aside for businessmen and villagers who were victims of robbery. This is the first sentence against military personnel of the FARDC for crimes against humanity. The same verdict stipulates that the Congolese state must ensure that the victims are compensated. This court’s decision is a significant step that will help advance the fight against impunity and provide reparation. However, more still needs to be done.

Conclusion

Victims of serious human rights violations in the DRC are begging for justice and reparation. It is true that reparation takes time. However, the new government must take a step in the right direction by placing this issue on its agenda. Erik Doxtader says that “in the face of a history that will not ‘end’, reparation requires close attention to the question of how to craft a present for the future. Much more than an ideal to be achieved in some vague time yet to come, its hope for transformation is a call to act right now. The fact that reparation can neither erase history’s pain nor fully compensate for its losses is not a reason to conclude that what is past is past or that legacies imply an inevitability which defies correction. But, this is not to say that there are ready-made solutions. Much more that just a set of policy decisions or court judgements, the power of the reparative may reside in an attitude, a willingness to see historical deprivation and inequality as a common problem that demands the struggle for a future in which things can be made otherwise.” [6]

 

  • Yav Katshung Joesph is a lecturer at the Faculty of Law, University of Lubumbashi , Democratic Republic of Congo and an Advocate at the LubumbashiBar Association. He is the Executive Director of CERDH, and Coordinator of the UNESCO Chair for Human Rights, Peace, Conflict Resolution and Good governance. He has published numerous articles on human rights, law and transitional justice in scholarly journals. For contact:

    * Please send comments to joyav22@yahoo.fr or joseyav@justice.com or comment online.

  • References:

[1] There is a debate in the DRC on the responsibility of Belgium for the barbarity and humiliation associated with the past oppression during the colonial period. Congolese civil society are demanding compensation from the Belgian government. As it is true in the world, there has been an increase in the incidence of claims for reparations related to injustice committed long time ago, including those related in colonialism. [2] Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, a Congolese national, has been the president of the Union des Patriotes Congolais (UPC) since its inception in 2000. In September 2002, he established and led the Forces Patriotique du Congo (FPLC), a military group affiliated with the UPC and dedicated to carrying out its goals using violence. He is alleged to have enlisted and conscripted children to serve as soldiers in this organisation. The UPC/FPLC is based in the Ituri district of the DRC, one of the most violent regions in the country. During the war in 2000, Lubanga’s organisation is alleged to have been responsible in part for many of the massacres and other abuses that took place in the Ituri region. More recently, his group has been involved in disputes to gain control over the mineral wealth of the region. [3] The benefits of victims from reparations under the ICC may not be linked to finding a perpetrator guilty. The Court is yet to pronounce itself on this.

[4] “The relationship between the International Criminal Court and Truth Commissions: Some thoughts on how to build a bridge retributive and restorative justice”, by Josephy Yav Katchung. Available at: http://www.iccnow.org

[5] In the northwestern province of Equateur , precisely at 600km northeast of the provincial capital Mbandaka. [6] Erik Doxtader, “Reparation” in Charles Villa-vicencio and Erik Doxtader, Pieces of the Puzzle, 2004, p 32

 

 

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